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FIRST BOOK 


ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 


j 

By CALVIN CUTTER, M.D. 

t# 7 


AUTHOR OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY FOR ACADEMIES, ETC., AND 
PHYSIOLOGY"FOR COMMON SCHOOLS. 


4 : 


WITH 



BOSTON: 

' BENJAMIN B. MUSSEY & CO. 

NEW YORK: CLARK AND AUSTIN. BALTIMORE: CUSHING AND BROTHER 
ROCHESTER, N. Y. : S. HAMILTON. PHILA. : U. HUNT AND SON. 

1847. 







Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1847, 

By Calvin Cutter, M.D., 

In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the District of Massachus 


boston : 

Printed by S. N. Dickinson, 
62 Washington street. 






<> 




PREFACE. 


In presenting this work to the public the author would 
indulge in a few prefatory suggestions. 

Education, to be complete, must be not only moral and 
intellectual, but physical. As the culture of the mind and 
of the affections is the subject of systematic attention in early 
life, should not the education of the physical powers be com¬ 
menced as early? It will demand no more maturity and 
thought to understand the reasons for adequate clothing, bath¬ 
ing, the necessity of an erect position in standing and sitting, 
regularity in taking food, the supply of pure air to the lungs, 
&c., than to comprehend geographical details or moral truths. 
Is not a knowledge of the laws and habits upon which health 
depends, as important to the development of a vigorous phys¬ 
ical constitution, as moral instruction is to the formation of 
correct moral principles? Can any reason be given why 
both should not be taught in the school-room ? 

A child should be taught to call each organ by its correct 
name. No more effort is required to learn the meaning of a 
proper , than an improper term. For example: a child will 
pronounce the word as readily, and obtain as correct an idea, 
if you say lungs, as if you used the word lights . 

In preparing this work, it has not been deemed necessary 
to use low, vulgar terms, for the purpose of being understood ; 







G 


PREFACE. 


but such words have been selected, as good usage sanctions. 
Should the pupil meet with any word he does not understand, 
let him consult his dictionary, as he should do in perusing ' 
works upon history, when a similar difficulty occurs. 

In this work, the technical words interspersed with the text, I 
have been divided into syllables, and the accented syllables I 
designated. An ample glossary of technical terms has also [ 
been appended to the work, to which reference should be 
made. 

For a more full and complete explanation of Anatomy and 
Physiology, the pupil is referred to the author’s Treatise, of 
340 pages, for Academies, High Schools, and Families. 

To the instructors of youth, and the patrons of education, 
this work is respectfully submitted. 

Boston, Aug. 1847. 




CONTENTS 


PAQfe. 

General Remarks. 9 

Bones. 11 

Practical Suggestions on.20 

Joints.22 

Practical Suggestions on. 25 

Muscles. 26 

Practical Suggestions on.30 

The Teeth.38 

Practical Suggestions on. 40 

The Digestive Organs.43 

Practical Suggestions on.49 

The Heart and its Vessels.53 

! Practical Suggestions on.61 

The Respiratory Organs.67 

Practical Suggestions on.73 

The Voice. 78 

Practical Suggestions on.79 

The Nervous System.82 

Practical Suggestions on.89 

The Skin.. 

Practical Suggestions on.98 

























CONTENTS, 


8 

Page. 

The five Senses.102 


Sense of Touch.102 

Sense of Taste* *. 103 

“ u Smell.104 

“ “ Hearing.106 

“ “ Seeing.110 

Absorption.118 

Secretion.121 

Animal Heat.123 

Removal of Disease.124 

Poisons and their Antidotes.*.128 

Glossary.135 

















FIRST BOOK 


ON 

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 


CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

1. Anatomy is a description of the organs , or parts of 
a body. 

Examples. 1st, Flowers have roots, stems, and blossoms. 
These are their organs. 2d, The teeth, stomach, and heart 
are some of the organs of the human body. 

2. Physiology is a description of the function , or use 
of an organ. 

Examples . 1st, The roots of flowers suck up water, to 
make them grow. This is their function. 2d, The stomach 
in man, is one of the organs that prepare the food for his 
growth. This is its function. 

3. Anatomy and Physiology are divided into two kinds; 
namely, Animal and Vegetable. 

4. Animal Anatomy and Physiology are again divided 
into Human and Comparative. 


1. What is anatomy? Give examples. 2. What is physiology? 
Give examples. 3. How many kinds of anatomy and physiology are 
there ? 4. How is animal anatomv and physiologv divided ? 

1 




10 


GENERAL REMARKS. 


5. Human Anatomy describes the structure of the organs 
of man . 

6. Human Physiology describes the functions of these 
organs. 

7. Comparative Anatomy describes the structure of other 
animals than man. 

Examples. As the different organs of the horse, the whale, 
the monkey, and the eagle. 

8. Comparative Physiology describes the functions of the 
organs of these animals. 

9. Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology describe the struc¬ 
ture and functions of different parts of trees, shrubs, plants, 
and flowers. 


5. What does human anatomy describe ? 6. What does human phy¬ 
siology describe 1 7. What does comparative anatomy describe ? Give 

examples. 8. What does comparative physiology describe ? 9. What 
do vegetable anatomy and physiology describe ? 






CHAPTER II. 


THE BONES. 

10. The Bones are the frame of the body, having out¬ 
side of them the muscles (flesh) and skin. 

11. Their use is to support and protect other parts of the 
body; as the lungs, the brain, &c. 

Illustration . The bones are to the body what the different 
pieces of timber are to a house; — they not only give form 
and support to the building, but, like the bones, impart 
strength to the whole structure. 

12. The number of bones in the human body is gener¬ 
ally reckoned at two hundred and eight.* 

13. These, for convenience, are divided into four parts. 
1st, The bones of the Head. 2d, The bones of the Trunk. 
3d, The bones of the Upper Extremities. 4th, The bones 
of the Lower Extremities. 

14. The bones of the head are divided into the Shull , 
Ear, and Face. 

lo. The bones of the skull are eight in number. These 
are joined together by ragged edges, called su'tures. 

* Some anatomists reckon more than this number, others less, for the rea¬ 
son, at different periods of life, the number of pieces, of which one bone is 
formed, varies. Example. The breast-bone, in infancy, has eight pieces; 
in youth three ; in old age but one. 


10. What are the bones? 11. What is their use? 12. How many 
bones in the human body ? 13. How are they divided ? Name them. 

14. How are the bones of the head divided ? 15. How many bones in 

the skull ? How are the bones of the skull joined together ? 




12 


THE BONES. 


16. The sutures stop, in a measure, the jars caused by 
external blows. Children should never strike each other upon 
the head, because the bones of the skull are then softer than 
in youth. 


Fig. 2. 



Fig. 2 represents the bones of the upper part of the skull, a, a , 6, c, c t 
the sutures that join the bones. 


17. There are four very small bones in each ear. They 
aid in hearing. 

18. The number of bones in the face is fourteen. 

•19. The Trunk has fifty-four bones. Twenty-four Ribs ; 
twenty-four bones in the Spi'nal Column (back-bone) ; four 
in the Pelvis ; the Ster'num (breast-bone) ; and one at the 
root of the tongue. 

20. All the Ribs are joined to the spinal column. There 
are twelve on each side. 


16. What is the use of sutures'? What does fig. 2 represent? 17. 

How many bones in eacli ear? What is their use? 18. How many 
bones in the face ? 19. How many bones in the trunk ? How many ribs 
are there ? How many bones in the spinal column ? In the pelvis ? 
In the sternum ? At the root of the tongue ? 20. To what are all the 
ribs joined ? How many on each side ? 







THE BONES. 


13 


21. The seven upper ribs are united in front to the ster- 
>on num > by a yielding substance called car'til-age* (gristle). The 
an rema i n i n g five are not attached, directly, to the sternum. 
Three are joined to each other by cartilage; two are not 
confined; hence, they are called “ floating ribs.” 


Fig. 3. 



Fig. 3. 1, The front bone of the skull. 2, 3, The side bones of the skull. 
J 5, The cheek bone. 6, The upper jaw. 7, The cavity for the nose. 8, The 
lower jaw. 9, The cavity for the eye. 

22. The cavity formed by the sternum, ribs, and spinal 
' column, is called the Chest. It contains the heart, lungs, and 
' large blood-vessels. 

23. The shape of the chest is conical, or like a sugar-loaf. 

24. The lower part of the chest is broader and fuller than 
the upper part, when it is not made smaller by tight clothing. 

* Paragraph 64. 

21. How are the first seven ribs united in front? The next three ? 
What are the last two called ? Why ? Describe fig. 3. 22. How is the 
chest formed ? What does it contain ? 23. What is the shape of the 

•chest? 24. How does the lower part of the chest compare in size with 
the upper ? 









14 


THE BONES. 



25. The SpiNALf Column is composed of twenty-foui 
pieces of bone. Each piece is called a vert' e-bra. 

Fig. 4. 


Fig. 4. 1, 2, 3, The sternum (breast-bone). 4, 5, The spinal column. 
6, 7,8, 9, The first rib. 10, The seventh rib. 11, The cartilage of the third 
rib. 12, The floating ribs. 


26. Between each vertebra is a thick piece of cartilage, 
which is elastic, or springs like India-rubber. This not only 
unites the vertebrae, but permits them to move in different 
ways. 

27. There is an opening in each vertebra. By a union 
of these openings, a canal is formed the whole length of the 
spinal column, in which the spinal cord (pith of the back¬ 
bone) is placed. 

t From the Latin spi'na, a thorn. So called from the points of the verte- >1 
brae that are felt beneath the skin. 


25. Of how many pieces of bone is the spinal column composed ? j 
What is each piece called ? Describe fig. 4. 26. What is placed be* i 
tween each vertebra % Give its use ? 27. How is the spinal canal form- « 
ed, and what does it contain 1 How may an idea of the structure of the 
vertebrae be obtained 7 





THE BONES. 


15 


Observation . A good idea of the structure of the vertebra, 
may be obtained by examining the spinal column of a do¬ 
mestic animal; as, the hog, dog, or cat. 

28. The spinal column is a very curious and perfect piece 
of mechanical art. By its structure, great strength, and suf¬ 
ficient movement or flexibility, are combined. The vertebrae 
are so firmly joined together, that dislocation of them, without 
fracture, is very rare. 


Fig. 5. 


Fig. 6. 



3 


Fig. 5 represents the form of a vertebra of the neck. 1. The main por¬ 
tion of the bone. 2, The spinal canal, in which the spinal cord is placed. 

I 4, 5, 7, 8, Points or projections of the vertebra. 

Fig. 6. 1, The cartilage that connects the vertebra. 3, 4, 5, 6, Points 
or projections of the vertebra. 7, The spinal canal. 

1 ! 29. The Pelvis is composed of four bones. They are 

so arranged as to form a bony basin. The spinal column rests 
on these bones, and they serve also to support the lower ex¬ 
tremities. 

30. In the sides of these bones is a deep, round cavity, in 
which the head of the thigh-bone is placed, called ac-e-tab '- 
u-lum. 

31. The bones of the upper extremities are the Scap'u-la 
(shoulder-blade) ; the Glav'i-cle (collar-bone) ; and the bones 
of the arm, wrist, and hand. 

• 28. What is said of the structure of the spinal column ? Describe 

fig. 5. Describe fig. 6. 29. Of how many bones is the pelvis composed ? 

What is their use'? 30. What is found in the sides of these bones'? 
31 Name the bones of the upper extremities. 








16 


THE BONES. 


32. The Scapula is a broad, irregular bone, situated 3 
upon the upper and back part of the chest. 

33. The Clavicle is a thin bone at the base of the neck. 1 
It is joined at one extremity to the sternum, at the other to j 
the scapula. 



Fig 7 1, 1, The hip-bones. 2, The sacrum upon which the spinal | 

column rests. 3, The extremity of the back-bone, named the coccyx. 

4, 4, The cavities for the head of the thigh-bone. 

34. The use of the clavicle is to keep the arms from slid- S 
ing towards the breast. Children should frequently throw 
their arms backward; as this would tend to increase the , 
length of this bone, and also to enlarge the chest. 

35. The long round bone of the arm is called the hu'mer-us. 

36. The two bones between the elbow and wrist are call¬ 
ed the ra'di-us and ulna. By a beautiful arrangement of these 1 
bones, the hand is made to turn or rotate , permitting its com¬ 
plicated and varied movements. Proofs of a designing Cre¬ 
ator are nowhere more manifest than in the simple but won¬ 
derful structure and adaptation of the human hand. 

32. Describe the scapula. 33. Where is the clavicle situated ? De¬ 
scribe fig. 7. 34. What is the use of the clavicle ? 35. Describe the 

humerus. 36. What are the names of the bones below the elbow ? 











THE BONES. 


17 


37. The lower extremities contain sixty-four bones. The 
Fe'mur (thigh-bone) ; the Pa 1 1el-la (knee-pan) ; the Tib'i-a 
and Fib'u-la , and the bones of the foot. 

38. The Femur is the longest bone of the body. It sup¬ 
ports the weight of the head, trunk, and upper extremities. 

39. The Tibia (shin-bone) and the Fibula are situated 
between the knee and ankle. 


Fig. 8. 


Fig. 9. 



Fig. 8. tj, The ulna, r, The radius, s, l, c, p, tj. m, t, t, The eight bones 
of the wrist. 1,1, 1,1,1, The five bones of the palm of the hand. 

Fig. 9. 10,10, 10, The bones of the palm of the hand. 11,12,13, The 
bones of the fingers. 14,15, The bones of the thumb. 

40. The foot is formed of twenty-six bones. Seven in 
the instep, called Tar'sal bones; five Met-a-tar'sal , and four¬ 
teen toe-bones, called Pha-lan'ges. 

41. The bones of the foot are so united as to give it the 
form of an arch, — convex on its upper surface, and concave 
on the lower surface. 


37. How many bones in the lower extremities ? Name them. 38. 
Describe the femur. 39. What bones are situated between the knee 
ai)d ankle? What does fig. 8 represent ? What does fig. 9 represent? 
•40. How many bones in the foot? How many in the instep? How 
many toe-bones ? 41. What is the form of the foot ? How does it ap¬ 
pear on its upper surface ? Upon its lower surface ? 









18 


THE BONES. 




Fig. 11. A side view of the bones of the foot, showing its arched form 
The arch rests upon the heel behind, and the ball of the toes in front. 1, Th( 
lower part of the tibia. 2, 3, 4, 5, Bones of the tarsus. 6, The metatarsal 
bones. 7, 8, The bones of the great toe. These bones are so united by car¬ 
tilages as to insure a great degree of elasticity, or spring. 

Experiment 1st. Take the bone of the sheep or calf, anc 
burn it in a clear fire a short time ; on taking it out, it wil 
look white; its weight will be found to be less, and it will breal 


Fie. 10 represents the upper surface of the bones of the foot. 1,2, 3,4, i 
6 7 8 The tarsal bones. 9,9, 9, The metatarsal bones. 10,11, The bone 
of the great toe. 12, 13,14, The bones of the small toes. 

Fig.11. 


^ • 

42. This structure gives to the foot elasticity or spnr 
which not only lessens the fatigue in walking, but prevent 
injury to the brain, heart, stomach, and other organs. 

43. The bones are formed of both animal and earth} 
matter. 

Fig. 10. 


easily, because the fire has destroyed the gel'a-tin (jelly) or 


animal matter of the bone. 


42. What is the use of this arch 1 43. Of what are the bones formed ? 
Describe fig. 10. Describefig.il. Give experiment 1st. Give the 2d. 







THE BONES. 


19 


Experiment 2d. Take another bone and immerse it in a 
weak acid (one part of muriatic acid to six parts of water); 
let it remain a few days, and it can be knotted, or easily cut 
without dulling the knife. In this experiment, the acid has 
removed the earthy matter (carbonate and phosphate of lime), 
while the gelatin remains. 


Fig. 12. 


\ 

is 


D. 

ie 

al 

i- 


jr 


I! 

I. 



Fig. 12. 1.1, The spinal column, on the top of which are the bones of 
the head.* 2, 2, The ribs. 3, The sternum. 4, 4, The clavicles (collar¬ 
bones). 5,5, The humerus (upper arm-bone). 6, 6, The elbow. 7,7, 
The radius. 8, 8, The ulna. 9 , 9 , The carpus (wrist-bones). 10, 10, 
the phalanges (finger-bones). 11, 11, The pelvis. 12 The sacrum. 13,13, 
The hip-ioint. 14, 14, The femur (thigh-bone). 15, 15, The knee-joint. 
16, 16, The fibula. 17, 17, The tibia (shin-bone). 18, 18, The ankle. 
19’ 19,’ The foot. 

















20 


THE BONES. 


PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


44. The bones of a child contain more of the animal than 
the earthy matter; therefore, they will bend before they will 
break. The bones of the aged man will sooner break than 
bend, because they contain more of the earthy than animal 


matter. 


45. In middle age, the animal and the earthy matter exist 
in more equal proportions; hence, the bones are fitted for 


labor, as they will not bend like the child’s, nor fracture like 
those of the aged man. 


Fig. 13: 



46. The ribs and bones of the spinal column are soft and 
yielding in childhood. A small amount of pressure upon the 


Let the pupil give the situation and a general description of each bone, 
by aid of fig. 12. 44. Why do not the bones of a child break as soon as 
Why does an a o ed person’s bones break sooner 
t 5 1ana cidIds 1 45 - When are the bones best fitted for labor ? 46. Why 
should children wear loose clothing J 







THE BONES. 


21 


ribs will cause them to injure the lungs, stomach, and heart, 
j F or this reason every article of clothing should be loosely 
j worn. 

i 47. A person should not stand with one hip elevated more 
I than the other. But, when necessary to throw the weight of 
the body upon one limb, keep that limb firm. 

48. Very young children should not be required to stand 

a long time, for the yielding bones of the limbs will become 
bent or crooked. * 

49. To prevent the bones of the spinal column becoming 
j curved, every person should sit and stand erect. 

50. When a bone is fractured, the material that reunites 
it is deposited on the ends of the broken bone, by the blood- 

| vessels. 

51. Some days elapse after the bone is broken, before the 
substance that reunites it is thrown out from the blood. 

52. In young persons, it may be done during the second 
or third week, and in individuals advanced in life, it is usually 
done during the third and fourth week. 

53. When the bone is uniting, during the second, third, or 
fourth week, the attention of a surgeon is more needed than 
during the first week. At that time the ends of the bone 
should be placed together with accuracy. This requires the 

j careful application of proper dressing. 

54. During this period there is not much pain, and the 
i swelling is very much diminished. 


47. Should persons stand with one hip more elevated than the other ? 
48. Why should not young children stand a long time 1 ? 49. Why 
should every person sit and stand erect ? 50. How is a broken hone heal¬ 
ed ? 51. Is the reuniting substance thrown out immediately by the 

blood-vessels t 52. Does the time vary with different persons ? 53. 

When is the surgeon’s care most necessary ? 54. At what stage is the 

swelling much diminished 1 

2 






CHAPTER III. 


THE JOINTS. 


55. The Joints are formed by the union of two or more 
bones. These are bound together by thin, glistening bands, 
called lig'a-ments. 


Fig. 14. Fig. 15. 



tSbon' e h?' The ligaments that extend from the hip-bone (6) to the 


shoufdir‘hlfl 2 f ip 3 aT he T 1 v? a ? aentS ^extend from the collar-bone (1) to the 
thefirstbone^of the Jm? *’ *’ eXt6nd fr0m the ^ouMer-blade to 


cribe figTs are the j0i " t3 f0nncd 1 mat is 8hown b J fig-141 Des- 









THE JOINTS. 


23 


56. There are two kinds of joints, the movable and the 
immovable. 

57. When the union of the bones permits them to move, 
the joint is called a movable joint; as, the finger-joints. 

58. When bones are united, to secure firmness, the joints 
are called immovable joints; as, the sutures of the skull. 
(Fig. 2.) 

59. The more movable a joint, the less firm it is, and 
the more frequently dislocated, or “ put out.” It is for this 
reason, that the shoulder-joint is more frequently displaced 
than any other in the body. 


Fig. 16. 


Fig. 17. 



Fig. 16. 1, The lower extremity of the thigh-bone. 3, 5, The two 
j rounded extremities that rest upon the upper extremity of the tibia (shin- 
j bone). 2, Two ligaments within the knee-joint. 6,7, The cartilage that tips 
the upper extremity of the shin-bone. 

Fig. 17. 2, The deep socket of the hip-joint. 5, The round head of the 
thigh-bone, which is lodged in the socket. 3, The ligament within the 
socket. 


56. How many kinds of joints are there ? 57. What is a movable 

joint ? 58. What is an immovable joint ? 59. Are the most mova¬ 

ble joints the firmest ? Why is the shoulder-joint more frequently dis¬ 
placed than any other in the body? Describe fig. 16. Describe fig. 17. 










24 


THE JOINTS. 


60. Some joints move but in one direction, like a hinge 
of a door. These are called Hinge Joints ; as, the ankle and is 

the knee joint. • | Tl 

61. The union of the spinal column with the skull, ex¬ 
hibits one of the most ingenious contrivances to be met with j 
in the body. * 1st, It permits the backward and forward move¬ 
ment, as in bowing and nodding the head. 2d, The motion 
which is made in turning the head from side to side. 

62. This admirable piece of mechanism affords great 
protection to the spinal cord, at the top of the neck; this being, 
perhaps, the most vital portion of the whole body. Injury to 
it, or pressure upon it, is instantly fatal. 

63. Some joints move in different directions, like a ball 
in a socket. These are called Ball and Socket Joints ; as, the 
shoulder and the hip joint. 


Fig. 18. Fig. 19. 



Fig. 18 gives the relative position of the bone, cartilage, and synovial 
membrane, a, a, The extremities of two bones, to form a joint, b, b , The ! 
cartilage that covers the end of the bone, c, c, c, c, c, c. The synovial mem¬ 
brane which covers the cartilage of both bones, and is then doubled back 
from one to the other; it is represented by the dotted lines. 

Fig. 19 finely illustrates the different parts that compose a joint, by a 
vertical section of the knee-joint. 1, The thigh-bone. 3, The"knee-pan. 

5, The tibia (shin-bone). 2,4, Ligaments of the knee pan. 6, Cartilage oi the 
tibia. 12, The cartilage of the thigh-bone. * * * * The synovial membrane. 


60. What are those joints called, that move but in one direction ? 
Give examples. 61. What is said of the union of the spinal column with 
the skull ? 62. What protection does it afford ? 63. What are those 

joints called, that move in different directions ? Give examples. What 
is represented by fig. 18 1 What is represented by fig. 19 1 

















THE JOINTS. 


25 


64. The end of the bone that forms a movable joint, 
is covered with a tough elastic substance, capable of bearing 
very great pressure, without causing pain. 

65. This substance is called cartilage . It diminishes the 
jar that the joints receive. 

66. External of the cartilage is found a thin skin, or mem¬ 
brane. This passes from one bone to the other, and forms 
a shut sac. It contains a fluid called Sy-no'vi-a (joint- 
water). 

67- This diminishes the friction, and also favors the move¬ 
ments of different parts that form the joint. 


PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

68. When a bone has been displaced, it should be care¬ 
fully replaced, or “ setand the injured joint should not be 
used, until the swelling and pain begin to diminish. Then, 
it may be rubbed and moved moderately. 

69. A sprained joint should never be used, while the swel¬ 
ling and pain continue to increase, if you would avoid a stiff, 
unyielding joint. 

70. The circulation of blood in the cartilage and liga¬ 
ments of the joints is feeble, and is easily influenced by chills 
upon the skin. This causes pain and stiffness of the joint. 
To prevent the chill, clothe the limbs with flannel. 

71. When a chill is contracted, immediately apply warm 
water, followed by vigorous rubbing. 


64. What is found at the end of a bone that forms a joint ? 65. 

What is it called 1 Its use 1 66. What is found external of the car¬ 
tilage ? What does it contain ? 67. What is its use ? 68. How soon 

should an injured joint be used ? 69. What is said of sprained joints ? 

70. What is said of the circulation of blood in the parts that form a joint ? 
What is the effect of chill upon a joint 1 71. How relieved 1 

2 * 



CHAPTER IV 


THE MUSCLES. 

72. A Muscle (lean flesh, or red meat) is composed of 
many little strings, called flb'es. 

73. Some of these fibres run in straight lines; others 
spread like a fan; while some are inclined like the feathery 
part of a quill. 



12 3 4 


Fig. 20. 1, Represents the fibres of a muscle running in straight lines ; 
2, The fan-shaped fibres. 3, 4, Fibres inclined like the plumes of a quill. 
t, t, Tendons at the extremities of the muscle, 1. 

74. Towards the extremities of a muscle the fibres unite 
and form a substance of a whitish color, harder and tougher 
than the muscle. This is called ten'don (cord, sinew). 


72. What is a muscle 1 73. How do these fibres run ? What is 
shown by fig. 20 ? 74. Describe a tendon. 








THE MUSCLES. 


27 


Observation . The pupil can examine a piece of boiled beef \ 
or the leg of a fowl, and see the structure of the fibres and 
tendons of a muscle. 

75. Tendons have various shapes; sometimes they are 
long, slender strings; sometimes they are short and thick; 
again, in some situations, they are thin and broad. 

7 6. The use of tendons is to fasten the muscles to the 
bones, or to each other. 

Illustration . The muscles and tendons are to the bones, 
what the ropes are to the sails and yards of a ship. By thei*- 
action, the direction of the sails and yards is changed. So, 
by the action of the muscles, the position of the bones of the 
body is changed. 

77. There are more than four hundred muscles in the hu¬ 
man body. To these, and a yellow substance called fat, that 
surrounds and fills the spaces in the muscles, the child and youth 
are indebted for the roundness and beauty of their limbs. 

78. When we are sick, and cannot take food, the body is 
fed with this fat. The removal of it into the blood, causes 
the sunken cheek, hollow eye, and prominent appearance of 
the bones after a severe sickness. 

79. In some parts of the body, there is but one layer of 
muscle over the bones; in other parts, there are five or six 
layers ; one muscle being placed over another. 

80. In general, they form about the bones two layers, 
called the superficial or external muscles; and the deep seat¬ 
ed, or those nearest the bone. 

81. When we look at this “ harp of a thousand strings,” 
and notice the varied, rapid, complicated, yet accurate move- 

75. What is the shape of tendons? 76. What is their use? Give 
an illustration. 77. How many muscles in the human body? Why are 
the limbs of a child more round and full than an aged person’s ? 78. How 
is the body nourished when we cannot take food ? What does the re¬ 
moval of it cause ? 79. How many layers of muscle are there around 

the bones ? 80. How many layers generally ? What are they called ? 



28 


THE MUSCLES. 


ments it performs in a single day, our thoughts are lost in 
wonder, in contemplating this superb and intricate machine, 
framed and finished by the Divine Architect. 

82. Every motion of the body is made by the contracting 
or shrinking of the fibres of the muscles ; from the awkward 
movement of the boy’s first effort at penmanship, to the delicate 
and graceful sweeps of the pianist; from the firm, stately tread 
of the soldier, to the light, fairy-like step of the danseuse. 

83. Muscles remain contracted but a short time ; then 
they relax, or lengthen, which is their rest. 

Fig. 21. 



J 

ti 

Ir 

ti 

tl 

« 

I 

; 


Fig. 21 illustrates how every joint of the body is moved. 1, The bone of 
the arm above the elbow. 2, One of the bones below the elbow 3 The 
muscle that bends the elbow. This muscle is united, bv a tendon, to the 
b ° ne _ the . elb ?w (4) ; at the other extremity, to the bone above the 

eibow (5). 7, A weight in the hand to be raised. The central part of the 
muscle (o) contracts, and its two ends are brought nearer together. The 
bones below the elbow are brought to the lines shown by * * *! The 
weight is raised in the direction of the curved line. In this manner all 
the joints of the system are moved. 


4 84 * The eyebrows are elevated or raised by the contrac¬ 
tion of the muscles on the forehead, 1, fig. 22. 


82. How is every motion of the body produced ? 83. Do muscles re¬ 
main contracted a long time ? Describe fig. 21. [With figs 22 and 23 
before the pupil, let the uses of the different 8 muscles be^given as exnlain 
ed by the twenty-three following paragraphs.] g 5 as explain- 


















THE MUSCLES. 


29 


85. The eyes are closed by the contraction of the muscles 
that surround them, 2, fig. 22. 

86. The upper lip is elevated by the contraction of the 
muscles, 3, 4, 5, 6, fig. 22. 

87. The mouth is closed by the contraction of a muscle 
that surrounds it, 7, fig. 22. 

88. The lower lip is drawn down, or depressed, by the con¬ 
traction of muscles on the lower part of the face, 8, fig. 22. 

89. The head is bent forward, as in nodding, by the con¬ 
traction of muscles on the front part of the neck, 9, fig. 22. 

90. The chin is raised, and the head is brought erect by 
the contraction of muscles on the back part of the neck, 5, 6, 
fig. 23. 

91. The body is bent forward, and the ribs brought down, 
by the contraction of muscles on the front and lower part of 
the trunk, 22, 23, fig. 22. 

92. The muscles at the lower and back part of the trunk, 
keep the spinal column erect, 24, 25, 26, fig. 23. 

93. The muscles upon the upper and front part of the 
chest, bring the shoulders forward, 11, fig. 22. 

94. The shoulders are brought back by the contraction of 
the muscles upon the upper and back part of the chest, 7, 
fig. 23. 

95. The arm is elevated by a muscle upon the shoulder, 
10, fig. 22 ; and 8, fig. 23. 

96. The arm is brought to the side by muscles, 11, fig. 22 ; 
and 24, fig. 23. 

97. The elbow is bent by the contraction of the muscles 
on the upper and front side of the arm, 14, fig. 22. 

98. The elbow is extended by a muscle on the back 
part of the arm, 10, fig. 23. 

99. The wrist and fingers are bent by the muscles on the 
front part of the arm, below the elbow, 16, 17, 18, fig. 22. 

100. The muscles on the back part of the arm below the 
elbow, extend the wrist and fingers, 21, 22, fig. 23. 


30 


THE MUSCLES. 


101. The muscles that bend the lower limbs at the hip, 
are situated at the lower and front part of the trunk, and the 
upper and front part of the thigh, 25, 26, 27, 28, fig. 22. 

102. The lower limbs are extended at the hips by the 
muscles on the lower and back part of the trunk, and the 
upper and back part of the thigh, 27, 28, fig. 23. 

103. The muscles upon the front part of the thigh extend 
the leg at the knee, 29, 30, fig. 22. 

104. The knee is bent by the muscles upon the back part 
of the thigh, 29, 30, fig. 23. 

105. The muscles upon the fore part of the leg, below 
the knee, bend the foot at the ankle, and extend the toes, 
34, 35, 36, fig. 22. 

106. The muscles upon the back part of the leg, below 
the knee, extend the foot at the ankle, and bend the toes, 31, 
32, 33, fig. 23. 

Observation. It would be a profitable exercise for pupils 
to press their fingers upon prominent muscles, not only to 
learn their situations, but their uses ; as, the one that bends 
the arm, 14 (fig. 22) ; and vigorously contract it by bending 
the arm. The muscles, during contraction, are full and hard* 

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

107. Every muscle should be used and then rested. This 
will increase their size and strength, by increasing the flow of 
blood to the parts called into action. 

108. A muscle should not be used too long, or remain at 
rest too long ; both are alike injurious. 

Illustrations. 1st, The blacksmith uses and rests the mus¬ 
cles of his arm when striking upon the anvil. They not only 
become large, but very firm and hard. 


107. Should muscles be used ? Why 1 108. Can muscles be used too 
long 1 ? Give illustrations. 






/ 


THE MUSCLES. 


Fig. 22. 






✓ 


> 





31 


































































































32 


THE MUSCLES, 































































THE MUSCLES, 


83 


2d, The student uses the muscles of the arm but little, in 
holding his books and pen ; they not only become small, but 
soft. 

3d, Let the student change his business, and pound 
heated iron, and the muscles of his arm will increase in size 
and firmness. Let the blacksmith become a student, and the 
muscles of his arm will become soft and less firm. 

109. The muscles should he used in pure air. The 
purer the air we breathe, the longer can the muscles be used 
in labor, walking, or sitting, without fatigue and injury. 

110. If the air of the sick-room is pure, the patient will 
sit up longer than when the air is impure. 

Observation. It is a common remark that a sick person will 
sit up longer when riding in a carriage, than in an easy chair 
in the room where they have lain sick. In the one instance, 
they breath the pure air of heaven; in the other, usually, a 
confined, impure air. 

111. Every muscle should move freely. Compression, by 
any means, lessens their size and strength. 

Illustration. Let a surgeon bandage a limb for some weeks, 
when a bone is broken. When the bandage is removed, 
the limb will be found smaller than when the accident oc¬ 
culted. The compression by close dresses produces similar 
effects upon the muscles of the body. 

112. In speaking , reading, singing , and recitation , the 
body and head should be erect. In this position, the parts 
called into action will be more under the control of the person, 


109. Should the muscles be used in pure air? Why? 110. What is 
said of sick persons ? Give an illustration. Why the difference ? 111. 

Should every muscle move freely ? Why ? Give an illustration. What 
effect have close dresses upon the muscles of the body ? 112. What 

should be the position of the body when we are speaking, reading, 
and reciting ? Why ? 


8 





34 


THE MUSCLES. 


and can be used a longer time without fatigue, than in the ! 
position represented by fig. 24. 

113. A person will stand longer, walk farther, and do 
more work when erect, than in a stooping posture; because 
the muscles of the back, in stooping, are in a state of tension, 
or stretching, to keep the head and trunk from falling for¬ 
wards. In the erect position, the head and trunk are nicely 
balanced and supported by the bones of the spinal column; 
and the muscles of the back are called, but slightly, into 
action. 


Fig. 24. 



Fig. 24, An injurious position in sitting. 


Experiment. Hold in each hand a pail of water, or equal 
weights, in a stooping posture, as long as it can be done with 


113. Why will a person walk farther, and do more work, when erect 
than in a sitting posture ? What does fig. 24 show ? Give an experiment. 










THE MUSCLES. 


35 


out much suffering and injury. Again, when the muscular 
pain has ceased, hold the same pails of water, for the same 
length of time, in an erect posture, and note the difference in 
the fatigue of the muscles. 

114. While studying, drawing, writing, and sewing, the 
body should be kept erect. Narrow chests, “ hollow stom¬ 
achs,” “ round shoulders,” and ill health, follow a violation of 
this rule. 

Fig. 25. 



Fig. 25. The proper position in sitting. 


115. The state of the mind affects muscular contraction. 
A person who is cheerful and happy, will do more work and 

I with less fatigue, than one who is peevish and unhappy. 

116. When the muscular system has been in a state of 

114. What is one cause of narrow chests and round shoulders 1 What 
is shown by fig. 25 ? 115. Does the state of the mind affect muscular 

contraction ? 






36 


THE MUSCLES. 


rest, it should not suddenly be called into vigorous action. On 
arising from a bed, lounge, or chair, the first movements of the 
limbs should be slow, and then, if necessary, gradually in- * 
creased. 

Observation. If a man has a certain amount of work to be ‘ 
performed in nine hours, and his muscles have been in a state 
of rest, he will do it with less fatigue by performing half 
the amount of the labor in five hours, and the remainder in 
four hours. 

117. The same principles should be regarded in driving 
horses and other beasts of burden. 

118. When the muscles have been vigorously used, they 
should be rested gradually. 

119. If a person has been making great muscular exer¬ 
tion in cutting wood, or any other employment, instead of sit- 1 
ting down to rest, he should continue muscular action by 
some moderate labor. 

120. If the body has been heated by muscular action, and ! 
the skin is covered with perspiration, avoid sitting down “ to j 
cool ” in a current of air; rather put on more clothing, and i 
continue to exercise moderately. 

121. In cases when severe action of the muscles has been 
endured, bathing and rubbing the skin over the joints that * 
have been used, are of much importance. By reducing to 
practice the foregoing suggestions, soreness of the muscles 
and stiffness of the joints, will be prevented. 

122. In jumping or falling from a carriage, or any height,. 


116. What caution is given in using the muscles when they have been 
some time in a state of rest? Give an observation. 117. Should this 
principle be observed in driving horses ? 118. How should muscles be 

rested ? 120. When the skin is covered with perspiration from muscu¬ 

lar action, how should it be “cooled?” 121. How can stiffness of the 
muscles be prevented ? 122. In jumping from a carriage, in how many 

ways can the shock to the body be obviated ? 





THE MUSCLES. 


37 


the shock to the organs of the system may be obviated in the 
three following ways. 1. Let the muscles be relaxed , not 
rigid. 2. Let the limbs be bent at the ankle, knee, and hips, 
the head should be thrown slightly forward, with the trunk 
a little stooping. 3. Fall upon the toes, not the heel. 

Experiments . Stand with the trunk and lower limbs firm, 
and the muscles rigid; then jump a few inches perpendicularly 
to the floor, and fall upon the heels. Again, slightly bend 
the limbs, jump a few inches, and fall upon the toes, and the 
difference in the force of the shock, to the brain and other 
organs, will be readily noticed. 

123. In walking, dancing, and learning to write, there 
will be less fatigue, and the movements will be more grace¬ 
ful, when the muscles are slightly relaxed, than when rigidly 
contracted. The same principle applies to most of the me¬ 
chanical employments. 

Experiments. Attempt to bow with the muscles of the 
limbs and trunk rigid, and there will be only a stiff* bending of 
the body at the hip-joint. On the other hand, attempt to bow 
with the muscles moderately relaxed; the ankle, the knee, and 
the hip-joint will slightly bend, producing an easy and grace¬ 
ful curve of the body. 

124. When riding in cars and coaches, the system will 
not suffer so severely from the jar, if the muscles are slightly 
relaxed. When riding over uneven places in roads, rising 
slightly upon the feet diminishes the shock occasioned by the 
Sudden motion of the carriage. The muscles, under such cir¬ 
cumstances, are to the body what elastic springs are to a 
carriage. 

Give the 1st. Give the 2d. Give the 3d. Give experiments. 123. In 
what state should the muscles of the arm be when we are writing, or 
performing most employments ? Give experiments. 124. What remark 
is given when riding in cars or coaches ? 

3 * 







CHAPTER V. 






THE TEETH. 


125. The Teeth are firmly fixed in the sockets of the 
upper and lower jaw. 

126. The first set, which appear in infancy, are called 
temporary , or milk teeth. They are twenty in number; 
ten in each jaw. 


Fig. 26. 



Fig. 26 represents the permanent teeth of the upper and lower jaw. <z, b. 
The incisors, c, The cuspids, d, e, The biscuspids. fg, The molars 
(double teeth), h , The wisdom teeth. 


127. Between six and fourteen years of age, the tem- 


! 


——-—- U 

125. In what are the teeth plaeed ? 126. What are the first set call- | 

ed ? How many in number ? Describe fig. 26. 127. When are these , 
teeth removed ? 









THE TEETH. 


39 

porary teeth are removed, and the second set appears, called 
j permanent teeth. They number thirty-two, sixteen in each jaw. 

128. The four front teeth in each jaw are called in-ci'sors 
: (cutting teeth). The next tooth on each side, the cus'pid (eye 
| tooth). The next two, bi-cus'pids (small grinders). The next 
two, mo'lars (grinders). The last two on each side of the jaw 
are called wisdom teeth , because they do not appear until a 
person is about twenty years old. 


Fig. 27. Fig. 28. 



Fig. 27. A side view of the body and enamel of a front tooth. 

Fig 28. A side view of a molar tooth. 1, The enamel. 2, The body of 
the tooth. 3, The cavity in the crown of the tooth. 4, A nerve that 
spreads in the pulp of the tooth. 5, An artery that ramifies in the pulp of 
the tooth. 

129. Each tooth is divided into two parts; namely, crown 
and root, 

130. The crown is that part which rises above the jaw¬ 
bone and gum. The root, or “ fang,” is placed in the sockets 
of the jaw. 

131. The incisors, cuspids, and bicuspids, have each but 

What is the second set called'? How many in each jaw? 128. 
What are the teeth in front called? The next? The next two? 
Those next the bicuspids ? The last that appear in the jaw ? Des¬ 
cribe fig. 28. 129. How is each tooth divided ? 130. Which part of the 

tooth is the crown ? Which the root ? 131. What teeth have each but one 
root ? 





40 


THE TEETH. 


one root. The molars of the upper jaw have three roots, 
while those of the lower jaw have but two. Fig. 26. 

132. The crowns of the teeth are covered with a very 
hard substance, called en-am'el. The roots consist of bony 
matter. 

133. Through the bony substance several small vessels 
pass, to aid in the growth and also in the removal of the 
tooth. 

|1 

134. There are, beside these vessels, small white cords 
passing to each tooth, called nerves (see fig. 28). When 
these nerves are diseased, we have the tooth-ache. 

Observation. It is not always necessary to have teeth ex¬ 
tracted when they ache. The nerve may be diseased, and the 
tooth still be sound. 

135. On the banks of the Genesee river, there are 
many nicely-arranged mills for making flour. When the 
wheat is ground, a peculiar apparatus takes the ground ker¬ 
nels and Separates the flour from the coarse part of the grain. 
But there is a more beautiful mill in the human system, that 
grinds the food; and then, by a peculiar apparatus in the 
body, the waste or innutritious part is separated from the nu¬ 
tritious portion. 

136. The teeth are not only useful in chewing our food, 
but aid in speaking our words distinctly. 

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

137. Care should be taken in childhood, that the milk- 
teeth be removed as soon as they become loose, in order that 


What is the difference between the molars of the upper jaw and those 
of the lower jaw ? 132. With what are the crowns of the teeth cov¬ 
ered ? Of what do the roots consist ? 133. What is the use of the ves¬ 
sels that pass through the roots of the teeth ? 134. What causes a tooth 

to ache 1 Give an observation. 136. Of what use are the teeth ? 137. 
Why should the milk-teeth be removed as soon as loose ? 






THE TEETH, 


41 


the second set of teeth may present a regular and beautiful 
appearance. 

138. If the teeth are crowded and irregular, in conse¬ 
quence of the jaw being narrow and short, remove one or 
more, to prevent their looking unsightly and irregular. In a 
few months, the remaining teeth, with a little care, will fill the 
spaces. 

139. When they press so hard upon each other as to injure 
the enamel, one or more should be removed. 

140. To preserve the teeth, they must he kept clean. Af¬ 
ter eating food, they should be cleaned with a soft brush and 
water, or rubbed with a piece of soft flannel, to prevent the 
tartar collecting, and to remove the pieces of food that may 
have lodged between them. 

141. It is well to use refined soap once or twice every 
week, to remove any corroding substance that may exist 
around the teeth. 

142. Food or drink should not be taken into the mouth 
when very hot or very cold. Sudden changes of tempera¬ 
ture will crack the enamel, and finally produce decayed 
teeth. 

Observation. When it is necessary to have decayed teeth 
filled, it is better for their health and durability to have them 
filled with gold foil. 

143. Healthy persons have generally sound teeth, while 
feeble persons have decayed teeth. For this reason we should 
try to learn and practise the few simple rules that give us 
health. 


138. What suggestion when the teeth are crowded and irregular? 
139. When they press too hard upon the enamel ? 140. How can the 

teeth be preserved ? How often should they be cleaned ? 141. What 

may be used once or twice a week to remove any corroding substance ? 
142. Why should we not drink hot drinks or eat hot food ? Give an 
illustration. 143. What is one reason for preserving good health? 





Fig. 29. A view of the organs of the chest and abdomen. The front 
walls of each cavity are removed. 1, 2, The ribs. 3, Fat between the 
lungs. 4, Fat surrounding the heart. 5, The heart. 6, 7, 8, The right 
lung. 9, 10, 11, The left lung. 12, The diaphragm. 13,14, The right and 
left lobe of the liver. 16, The stomach. 17, 18, The upper portion of small 
intestine. 17, 17, 19, 19, The omentum (caul). 20, 20, The small intes¬ 
tines, seen through the caul. 21, The spleen. 22, 22, 22, The large in¬ 
testine. 23, 23, The walls of the abdomen turned down. 


ORGANS OF THE CHEST, ETC. 
Fig. 29. 


Explain fig. 29. 








CHAPTER VI. 


THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

144. The Digestive Organs are those that change the 
food we eat, so that it may be passed into the blood-vessels. 

145. These organs are the Teeth , Sal'i-va-ry Glands ,* 
(E-soph 1 a-gus (gullet), Stom'ach , Liv'er, Pan 1 ere-as (sweet¬ 
bread), In-test'ines (bowels), Lac'te-al Vessels, and Tho-rac'ic 
Duct. 


Fig. 30. 



Fig. 30. 1, A gland behind the jaw and below the ear (parotid). 2, Its 
duct through which the saliva flows into the mouth. 3, A gland within 
the lower Jaw (submaxillary). 4, Its duct. 5, A gland situated under the 
tongue (sublingual). 

* See Secretion. 


144. What is the use of the digestive organs ? 145. Name them. 








44 


THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 



146. The first change in the food is made in the mouth, 
by the teeth, and the sa-li'va (spittle) from the salivary glands. 

Observation. In the “ mumps ” the parotid gland is dis¬ 
eased ; the sublingual gland is diseased in the swelling under 
the tongue, called the “ frog.” 

147. The (Esophagus is a tube through which the foo< 
and drink passes into the stomach. It is situated behind the 
ira'cke-a (wind-pipe), and in front of the upper part of the 
spinal column. 

Fig. 31. 


Fig. 31 represents a side view of the face, oesophagus and trachea. 1, 
2, The trachea (windpipe) and larynx. 3, The oesophagus. 4,4, 4, The 
muscles of the upper portion of the oesophagus, forming the pharynx. 5, 
The muscles of the cheek. 6, The muscles that surround the mouth. 7, 
The muscle that forms the floor of the mouth. 


148. In swallowing, the food is pressed by the contrac¬ 
tion of the muscles, 5, 6, 7, into the pharynx. From the 
pharynx it is carried into the oesophagus, by the contraction 


146. Where is the first change in the food made ? 147. What is the 

oesophagus ? Where is it situated t What does fig. 31 represent ? 148. 
Doscribe the parts that are called into action in swallowing food. 









the digestive organs. 


45 


of the muscles, 4, 4, 4, and through that tube into the 
stomach. 

Observation. The process of swallowing or deglutition, is 
easily observed, when a person passes either liquid or solid 
food into the stomach. 

149. The Stomach is in the left side of the body, below 
the lungs and heart, fig. 29. It is curved like a Scotch bag- 
pipe. 

150. The coats or sides of the stomach are thin and 
yielding. On the inner side, there are many small glands, 
which supply a fluid, called gastric juice. 


Fig. 32. 



Fig. 32, represents the inner surface of the stomach and duodenum. 1, 
The lower portion of the oesophagus. 2, The opening through which the 
food is passed into the stomach. 3, The stomach. 9, The opening through 
which the food passes out of the stomach into the duodenum, or upper por¬ 
tion of the intestines. 10, 11, 14, The duodenum. 12, 13, Ducts through 
which bile and panci'eatic fluid pass into it. a, £, e, The three coats of 
the stomach; external serous ; middle muscular ; inner mucous. 

151. The Liver is in the right side of the body, below 


149. Where is the stomach situated? What does it resemble in 
shape? 150. What is said of the coats of the stomach? What is 
found on their inner surface? What does fig. 32 represent? 151. 
Where is the liver situated ? 

4 





46 


the digestive organs. 


the right lung. From the liver there flows into the duode¬ 
num, a yellow, hitter fluid, called bile (gall). t 

152. The Pancreas is situated behind and below the 
stomach (fig. 34). From it there flows a fluid into the duo- a 

denum, called pancreatic juice. . j 0 

153. We will now notice another change in the food, c 
The coats of the stomach contract, and the food is moved 
around, while, at the same time, the gastric juice mixes with 
it, forming a soft, pulpy substance, called chyme . 

154. This pulpy, grayish substance is passed into the 
duodenum, and by the action of the bile and pancreatic 
juice, it is changed into two parts ; — a milk like substance, 
called chyle ; and residuum , or waste matter. 

Observation. The bile does not flow into the healthy 
stomach. With many persons the imagination is bilious , not 
the stomach. 

155. The chyle and residuum pass from the duodenum 
into the remaining portion of the small intestines, and are 
moved along by a worm-like action of their parts. 

156. As these two substances are passing along the intes¬ 
tines, the chyle is sucked up by minute vessels, that pass 
through the small intestines, and the residuum is passed into 
the large intestines. 

157. The minute vessels that pass through the intestines, I 
are called lacteal (milk vessels). 

158. The lacteals are very numerous, and each vessel 
passes through a small gland, called mes-en-ter'ic. 


What fluid flows from it? 152. Where is the pancreas ? What fluid 
flows from it? 153. Where is the second change in the food effected? 
How is it done ? 154. What becomes of this pulpy substance ? What 

change is effected in the duodenum ? Give an observation. 155. Where 
do the chyle and residuum then pass ? 156. What becomes of the 

chyle? Of the residuum? 157. What is the name of the minute 
vessels that pass through the intestines ? 158. Are they numerous ? 

Through what do they pass beside the coats of the intestines ? 





THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 


47 


159. From the lacteals and mesenteric glands, the chyle 
is poured into the thoracic duct. 

160. The Thoracic Duct commences behind the liver, 
and ascends in front of the spinal column. At the lower part 
of the neck, it turns downward and forward, and pours its 
contents into the vein behind the collar-bone. 


Fig. 33. 



Fie 33. A portion of the small intestines, lacteal vessels, mesenteric 
glands, and thoracic duct. 1, The intestine. 2, 3, 4, Mesenteric glands, 


159. Where is the chyle poured from the lacteal vessels ? 160. Where 
does the thoracic duct commence % Where does the chyle, or changed 
food, mix with the blood ? Describe fig. 33. 














48 


THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 


thoracic duct. 5, The thoracic 


through which the lacteals pass to the iuvi»v.v -- » vpin at 

duct. 7, The point in the neck where it turns down to enter the vein at 

(8). 9, 10, The aorta. 11, 12, Vessels of the neck. 13, 14, lo, Ihe larg 
veins that convey the blood and chyle to the heart. 


Fig. 34. 



Fig. 34. A view of the organs of digestion, opened nearly the whole 
length. 15, The oesophagus laid open. 16, 20, The stomach. 22, The 
connection of the intestine to the stomach. 23, 24, 25, 26, The duo¬ 
denum. 27, 29, The liver. 28, The gall-bladder. 30, 31, Ducts that 
conduct the bile from the liver to the duodenum. 33, The pan¬ 
creas. 32, 34, The opening of the ducts from the liver and pancreas, into 
the duodenum. 35, 36, 37, 38, The small intestines. 39, The opening of 
the small intestine into the large intestine (40). 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, The 
large intestines. 50, The lower part of the intestine, called the rectum. 
53, The spleen. 




THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 


49 


161. The Colon and Rectum, or large intestines, are 
five or six feet in length, while the small intestines are about 
twenty-five feet in length. They carry the residuum or 
waste matter from the system. 

Observation. A good idea of the liver and intestines can 
be obtained, by examining these parts of a pig. In this 
animal, the sacs or pouches of the intestines are well defined. 

162. Let the pupil, from fig. 34, give the following reca¬ 
pitulation of the changes that the food undergoes, before it is 
made into blood. 

163. 1st. It is changed in the mouth, by the action of the 
teeth and saliva. 

164. 2d. By the action of the stomach and gastric juice 
it is changed into a pulpy mass, called chyme. 

165. 3d. In the duodenum, the bile and pancreatic juice, 
change the chyme into chyle and residuum. 

166. 4th. By the action of the lacteal vessels and thoracic 
duct, the chyle is poured into a vein behind the collar-bone, 
and passes to the lungs; here, by the action of the air, it 
becomes blood. (See "Chap. VIII). 

practical suggestions. 

167. There are three reasons for taking food. 1st, The 
child that is growing requires it, to promote the growth of 
the bones, muscles, skin, and other parts of the body. Hence, 

1 at that age, more food is needed, than when the growth of 
the system has ceased. 

168. 2d. Food is necessary to repair the waste which 
attends the functions of the different organs. The waste is 


161. What is the length of the intestines ? 162. By the aid of fig. 34, 

recapitulate the changes that the food undergoes, from its introduction 
into the mouth until it enters the veins, to be mixed with the blood. 
167. What is the first reason for taking food 1 168. The second 1 When 
is the waste greatest ? 







50 


tiie digestive organs. 


greatest when we exercise most; for this reason, when a 
person changes from an active employment, to one less active 
in character, the food should be diminished in nearly the 
same degree that the exercise is lessened. 

Examples. When the girl leaves the active household 
employments for the shop of the dress maker, — when the 
boy leaves the farm for the schoolroom, — the amount of food 
should be diminished as soon as the sedentary employment is 
commenced; for, under such circumstances, the appetite will 
not guide correctly. 

169. 3d. The food aids in supporting the warmth of the 
body. This is the reason why the appetite for food is 
keener in the winter than in the summer. The system re¬ 
quires more food in cold than in hot weather. 

170. The coats of the stomach are distensible. This 
organ may contain two or three pints; or it will contract, and 
hold but a gill. 

171. Food, to be suited to the wants of the system, should 
contain nutritious and innutritious matter. Nutritious to pro¬ 
mote the growth and repair the waste of the system ; and 
innutritious to distend both the stomach and intestines. 

Observation. Hot flour-bread, rich pies, and jellies, are 
not so good articles for food, as the unbolten wheat bread, 
ripe fruits, and berries. 

172. Chyle of a more stimulating and nutritious charac¬ 
ter, is made from animal than from vegetable food. There¬ 
fore, the former is more suitable to cold than to warm 
weather. 

Observation. By abstaining from meats and stimulating 


men should the amount of food be lessened ? Give examples. 16S 
Vta a wu^ e . thir< * rea j on • When does the body require the most food 
wk ? V ^ at iI S u aid ^ f the dist ensible property of the stomach? 171 
What should the different articles of food taken contain ? The use o 
me nutritious matter ? Of the innutritious ? Give an observation. 17S 
from what kind of food is the most stimulating chyle made ? Whicl 
is best adapted to warm weather 1 







THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 


51 


drinks in warm weather, and living on a simple diet, the 
“ season ” or bowel complaints may be, in a great degree, pre¬ 
vented. 

173. As the glands about the mouth supply a fluid to 
soften the food, it is not necessary to use drinks of any kind 
while eating. After eating, a small quantity may be taken 
without injury to the digestion of the food. 

174. The salivary glands, like the muscles, require to be 
used, and then rested. Hence, the chewing of ‘ gum ’ and 
tobacco are highly injurious. 

175. Food ought to be chewed slowly, in order that the 
saliva may become well mixed with it, before entering the 
second stage of digestion. 

176. The stomach has more strength to digest food when 
the system is not exhausted. Therefore, severe exercise im¬ 
mediately before and after eating, should be avoided. 

177. In all instances, when the system is much exhausted, 
but little food, and that of a simple character, should be 
taken; as in this condition the strength of the stomach is 
diminished as much as that of the system. 

178. Food should not be eaten immediately before re¬ 
tiring for sleep ; as it will remain in the stomach an undue 
length of time, causing irritation of the body, and disturbed 
sleep. 

179. The effect of thus violating a law of health, may be 
illustrated by an anecdote. A healthy farmer, who was in 
the habit of eating one fourth of a mince pie immediately 


173. What is the function of the glands about the mouth? When 
may a small quantity of drink be taken and not injure digestion ? 174. 

Why is it injurious to chew gu!n and tobacco ? 175. Why should the 

food be chewed slowly? 176. Why should we not exercise severely 
immediately before or after eating? 177. When the system is exhaust¬ 
ed, how much food should be taken, and what kind ? 178. Why should 

not food be eaten immediately before retiring for sleep ? 179. Illustrate 

the ill effect of thus taking food, by an anecdote. 






52 


THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 


before going to bed, became annoyed with unpleasant dreams, 
and among the varied images of his fancy, he saw that of his 
deceased father. Becoming alarmed, he consulted a physi¬ 
cian, who, after a patient hearing of the case, gravely ad¬ 
vised him to eat half of a mince pie, assuring him that he 
would then see his grandfather. 

180. The food, unless changed, as described, (163, 164, 
165, 166,) does not strengthen the body. When disease pre¬ 
vents this change, no food should be eaten. This rule should 
be regarded with infants as well as adults. 

181. When a person has been deprived of food for a 
considerable length of time, — as in the instance of a ship¬ 
wrecked mariner, or a person recovering from fever, — the 
food, at first, should be very simple, taken in small quantities, 
and eaten at regular hours. The weaker the person, the 
more important to observe these remarks. 

182. Water and most fluids are removed from the stomach 
in a very few minutes, by the action of the veins. In in¬ 
stances of great feebleness, the body can be strengthened 
sooner by liquid than by solid food. 

183. When travelling in coaches or cars, the stomach is 1 
not in a state to digest large quantities of food. When food is 
taken, it should be of the simplest character, and small in 
quantity. 

184. To prevent disease of the intestines and of the i 
body, it is just as necessary that they be evacuated regularly, 
as that we take food into the stomach at regular periods. 

185. Sitting, standing, and walking erect, aid in keeping 
the digestive organs healthy. 

180. When should no food be eaten 7 * By whom should this rule be 
observed . 181. When a person has been without food for several days, 

as a shipwrecked mariner, how should it be given? 182. Which are 
introduced into the system soonest, fluids or solid food ? 183. What is 

said m regard to food while we are travelling? 185. What position of 
the body aids digestion ? 








CHAPTER VII. 


THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 

186. The blood is a fluid that passes through tubes, or 
vessels, to every part of the body. 

187. The central organ of this circulating fluid, is the 
Heart. It is situated in the chest, between the right and 
left lung. (Fig. 31.) 

188. The heart is a double organ, or has two sides; 
called right and left. 

189. Each side of the heart has two cavities. The upper 
cavity is called the au'ri-cle (deaf ear). The lower cavity is 
called the ven'tri-cle. 

190. The auricles and ventricles are separated from 
each other by folds of membrane, called valves . 

191. Between the auricle and ventricle of the right side 
of the heart, there are three valves. 

192. Between the auricle and ventricle of the left side 
of the heart, there are two valves. 

Observation. To obtain a clear idea of the heart and 
valves, it is interesting to examine this part of an ox, calf, or 
sheep. 

186. What is the blood ? 187. What is the central organ of this cir¬ 
culating fluid ? Where is it situated 1 188. How many sides has the 

heart? 189. How many cavities has it ? What is the upper cavity 
called? What is the lower cavity called ? 190. How are these cavi¬ 

ties separated? 191. How many valves between the right auricle and 
ventricle? 192. How many valves between the left auricle and ventri¬ 
cle ? 






54 


THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


193. The valves in the heart permit the blood to flow 
from the auricles to the ventricles, but prevent its reflow- 
ing. 

194. The valves at the commencement of the aorta and 
pulmonary artery, permit the blood to flow from the ven~ 
tricles into these vessels, but prevent its returning. 


Fig. 35. Fig- 36. 



Fig. 35. 1, The right auricle of the heart. 2, The left auricle. 3, The 
right ventricle. 4, The left ventricle. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Vessels * through 
which the blood passes to and from the heart. 

Fig. 36. A view of the heart with its cavities and the vessels in connec¬ 
tion with them. 1, 2, Vessels that carry the blood to the heart. 3, The 
right auricle. 4, The right ventricle. 5, The valves between the right 
auricle and ventricle. 6, The partition between the two ventricles. 7, 8, 
The vessel that carries the blood to the lungs. 9, 9, The vessels that carry 
the blood to the left auricle (10). 11, The left ventricle. 15, The valves be¬ 
tween the left auricle and ventricle. 12, 13, Valves at the commencement 
of the aorta and pulmonary artery. 14, The aorta. 

Illustration. The valves of the heart, in their use, are 
similar to those of a pump, or steam engine. 

195. The blood passes from the right auricle (fig. 36, 3) 

* All vessels that carry blood to the heart, are called veins. All vessels 
that carry blood from the heart, are called arteries. 


193. What is the use of the valves of the heart'? 194. What is the 
use of the valves at the commencement of the aorta and pulmonary 
arteiy ? What is shown by fig. 35 ? Describe fig. 36. Give illustration. 
195. Describe the circulation of the blood through the right side of the 
heart. 








THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


55 


into the right ventricle (4) ; from the right ventricle into the 
pulmonary artery (7, 8), through which it passes to the lungs. 


Fig. 37. 



Fig. 37. t t The windpipe, h, The heart, a, The aorta, p, The pul¬ 
monary artery. 1, The branch of the pulmonary artery that divides in the 
left lung. 2, The branch that divides in the right lung. 

The divisions of these arteries continue to divide and subdivide, until 
they become no larger than hairs in size. Hence, they are called capillary 
vessels. These minute vessels pass over the air-cells in the lungs, repre¬ 
sented by small dark points around the margin of the lungs. 

196. While these minute vessels are passing over the air 
cells, the blood is changed from a bluish color to a bright red. 
(Fig. 40). It is then returned to the left side of the heart 
by the pulmonary veins (fig. 36, 9, 9). 

197. The left auricle (fig. 36,10), by its contraction, forces 


Explain fig. 37. How are the capillaries formed ? 196. Where does 

the blood change its color ? What vessels convey it to the left side of the 
heart 1 ? 197. Describe the circulation of blood through the left side of 
the heart. 





56 


THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


the blood into the left ventricle (11). The valves (15) pre¬ 
vent its reflowing. From the left ventricle the blood is 
forced into the arorta (14). The valves (13) prevent its ! 
returning. 

Fig. 38. 



■S'aOTta epreSentS the a ° rta andU3branches - The commencement 


What does fig. 38 represent ? 















THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


57 


198. The aorta divides and subdivides, until its minute 
branches are spread over every part of the body, in the 
same manner as the pulmonary artery is spread through 
every portion of the lungs. 

199. The difference between the functions of these two 
vessels is this: one connects with the right ventricle of the 
heart, and distributes impure blood only to the lungs; the 
other connects with the left ventricle of the heart, and dis¬ 
tributes pure blood to the whole body, the lungs not excepted. 

200. At the extremity of the divisions of the aorta, as 
well as the pulmonary artery, are found capillary vessels. 
This curious net-work of vessels is the commencement of 
the veins of the body, which return the impure blood to the 
heart. 

Fig. 39. • Fig. 40. 



Fig 39 1 1 A branch of the artery that carries the impure blood to 

the lungs. 3’ 3, Capillary vessels. 2, 2, A vein through which red blood 
is returned to the left side of the heart. . . ... 

Fig 40 1 1 A branch of the aorta. This terminates in the capillaries, 

(3, 3). 2, 2, A vein through which the impure blood is carried to the right 
side of the heart. 


201. The veins are more numerous, and spread over the 
body more irregularly than the arteries. They are also 


198 Does the aorta divide into many smaller branches like the pul- 
nonary artery ? 199. What is the difference in the function of these 

vessels 7 200. What vessels are found at the extremity of the divisions 

if the aorta'? What are they the commencement of? 201. Are the 
reins more numerous than the arteries 1 What is said of their size . 












58 


THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


larger in size; but their coats are not so thick or so strong 
as those of the arteries. 

The blood is carried to and from the heart by the agency 
of the ar'te-ries, veins, and cap'il-la-ries. These vessels are ! 
found in every part of the system. They are necessary to 
the proper distribution of the blood. The relation of these 
vessels and the heart will be easily comprehended by atten¬ 
tion to fig. 41. 

Fig. 41. 



Describe fig. 41. 












THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


59 


The dark impure blood is carried from the right ventricle 
of the heart, c, through the artery, d, d, to the air cells in the 
lungs, x, x. Over the walls of these cells the capillary ves¬ 
sels spread. The blood is purified in passing through the 
capillaries , from the artery, d, d, to the vein, e, e , through 
which it is returned to the left auricle of the heart, f. From 
the left auricle the blood is carried to the left ventricle, g. 
From the left ventricle it is forced into the aorta, A. Through 
the branches of the aorta, h, h , and i, i, the pure red blood is 
carried to every organ in the system. These arteries termi¬ 
nate in capillaries, 1, 1, 1, 1. Through these minute capil¬ 
laries, the blood is conveyed to the commencement of the 
veins. In these capillaries the blood loses its red color, and 
becomes of a dark hue. From these capillaries the blood is 
returned to the right auricle of the heart, b, through the 
veins, a , a, a, a. 

202. In fig. 39, the artery contains red blood ; it becomes 
dark colored in the capillaries, and is returned in the veins 
to the right side of the heart. 

203. In fig. 40, the artery contains impure, dark-colored 
blood; it becomes red blood in the capillaries of the lungs, 
and is returned in the veins to the left side of the heart. 

204. The heart aids in forcing the blood through the 
arteries, to the different parts of the body. Every time the 
heart contracts, there is a “ pulse ” or “ pulsation ” in the 
arteries. 

Experiment . Apply the fingers upon the artery at the 
wrist, at two different points, about two inches apart; if the 
pressure be moderately made, the “ pulse ” will be felt at 
both points. Let the upper point be pressed firmly, and 


202. What blood flows in .the artery represented by fig. 39. Where 
does it become dark colored ? 203. What blood is contained in the 

artery represented by fig. 40 ? Where does it become red ? 204. What 

is the use of the heart ? What causes the “ pulse 1 ” Give experiment. 





60 


THE HEAliT AND ITS VESSELS. 


there will be no pulsation at the lower point; but make 
strong pressure upon the lower point only, and the pulsation I 
will continue at the upper point; proving that the blood | 
flows from the heart, in the arteries, to different parts of the j 
system. 

205. The heart contracts, or the pulse beats, about seventy- 
five times every minute, in adults. In infants more than a 
hundred times every minute. In old persons less than j 
seventy-five times every minute. 

There is no pulsation in the veins, and the return of the 
blood to the heart through them, can be shown by the follow¬ 
ing experiments. 

Experiments. 1st. Press firmly on one of the veins upon 
the back of the hand, carrying the pressure towards the 
fingers; for a moment the vein will disappear. On removing 
the pressure of the finger, it will reappear, from the blood 
rushing in from below. 

2d. If a tape be tied around the arm above the elbow, the ; 
veins below will become larger and more prominent, and 
also a greater number will be brought in view. At this time i 
apply the finger at the wrist, and the pulsation of the arteries ] 
still continues, showing that the blood is constantly flowing 
from the heart into the veins ; and the increased size of veins j 
shows that the pressure of the tape prevents its flowing back 
to the heart. 

206. The blood is not necessarily red. It may be white, 
as in the fish, and the tendons of man; transparent, as in 
the insect; or yellowish, as in the reptile. 

207. The weight of blood in a common-sized man is 
between twenty-five and thirty pounds. 

205. How often does the heart contract in adults 7 In infants 7 In aged 
persons 7 Is there pulsation in the veins 7 Give experiment 1st. Give 
experiment 2d. 206. Is the blood always red 7 What color is it in fish, 
and the tendons of man 7 In insects 7 In reptiles 7 207 . How much 

blood does a common-sized man contain 7 






THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


61 


208. The blood contains all the material necessary for the 
growth of the different parts of the body, as well as to repair 
the waste which attends the action of the different organs. 

209. Every part of the body is constantly changing. In 
some instances we can see the change; as in the growth of 
the nails and hair. But the change that the muscles, bones, 
and other organs undergo we cannot see. 

210. Thus, in several years, it may be said, that we have 
new systems. But the change is so gradual that our personal 
sameness is never lost. The time of the change is not defi¬ 
nite, as was supposed by a genuine son of the Emerald Isle, 
who had been in America seven years and three months, and 
consequently, maintained that he was a native American. 

211. The useless atoms of the skin, muscles, bones, hair, 
and other parts of the body, are removed in different ways, 
and their places are supplied by newly-formed atoms from 
the blood. 


PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

212. To have good health, the blood must circulate freely. 
No article of apparel should be worn so as to prevent a free 
flow of blood through every organ of the body. 

213. Strings, bands, or belts, however narrow, should not 
be worn so tightly as to cause an indentation of the skin 
of the trunk or extremities. 

214. Inelastic bands, worn upon the lower extremities, 
are a frequent cause of enlarged veins and painful limbs. 


208. What does the blood contain 1 ? 209. Is the body constantly 
changing ? Can we see the change'? 210. What may be said of us 
after the lapse of years 1 Is the time of the change definite ? 211. What 
becomes of the useless atoms of skin, hair, &c. *? How are their places 
supplied 1 ? 212. Is it necessary to health, that the blood circulate freely ? 
213. Is it injurious for bands or strings to cause indentations of the skin 
of the trunk, or any part of the body ? 214. What is the effect of wear¬ 

ing inelastic bands upon the lower extremities ? 




62 


THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


215. The fulness and the crimson tint of the face, giddiness, 
fainting, and many derangements in the functions of differ¬ 
ent organs, are produced by pressure upon the blood-vessels 
of the trunk. 

216. The skin should be kept clean, and every part of an 
equal temperature, as these conditions favor free and vigor¬ 
ous circulation. 

Observation. When intending to ride in a cold day, wash 
the face, hands, and feet, in cold water, and rub them smartly 
with a coarse towel. This is far better than to take spirits 
into the stomach to keep the extremities warm. 

217. Muscular exercise is important in maintaining a 
healthy circulation. The muscles, when used, force the blood 
more rapidly to and from the heart/ 

Illustration .' The coach driver and teamster throw their 
arms around their bodies to warm them, when cold; because 
the muscles that are called into action in swinging the arms, 
force a greater quantity of blood into the chilled parts, and 
more heat is produced. 

218. Idle men and women, who complain of cold feet, 
and take “ warming bitters ” to quicken the blood, would find 
themselves warmer and more invigorated by calling the mus¬ 
cles into action in the mechanic’s shop, or the kitchen, or in 
some active employment. 

Observation. In cold weather, when travelling in cars, the 
feet will not become chilled so readily when standing as when 
sitting. Again, the feet will be warmer by allowing them to 
swing, instead of being supported the whole time, because the 
muscles called into action in swinging them increase the cir¬ 
culation of the blood. 


215. What is a frequent cause of giddiness, faintness, and derange¬ 
ment of the functions of many organs ? 216. In what condition should 

the skin he kept ? Give observation. 217. What is the effect of muscular 
exercise upon the circulation of blood 1 Give illustration. 218. What is 
better for cold feet and hands, than “ warming bitters ?” Give observation. 




THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


63 


219. When large blood-vessels are wounded or cut, the 
flow of blood must be immediately stopped, or the person will 
soon die. 

220. If a large artery be wounded, the blood will be 
thrown out in jets, or jerks, every time the pulse beats. 


Fig. 42. Fig. 43. 



Fig. 42, represents the track of the large artery of the arm. 1, The col¬ 
lar-bone. 9, 10, The large artery of the arm. 

Fig. 43. B, Represents the manner of compressing the artery near the 
collar-bone. A, The manner of compressing the large artery of the ami 
with the fingers. C, The manner of compressing the divided extremity of 
an artery in the wound, with a finger. 


219. What is necessary when large blood-vessels are wounded or cut? 
220. What is the appearance if an artery be wounded ? What is 
shown by fig. 42 ? What is shown by fig. 43? 






64 


THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


221. The flow of blood can be stopped until a surgeon 
arrives, either by compressing the vessel between the wound 
and the heart, or by compressing the end of the divided arte¬ 
ry in the wound. 


Fig. 44. Fig. 45. 



Fig. 44, represents the track of the large_ artery of the thigh. 7, The 
point where it may be compressed at the groin. 8, The artery at the mid¬ 
dle of the thigh. 

Fig 45, shows the different methods of compressing wounded arteries. A, 
the method of compressing the artery at the groin, with the thumb. B, Com¬ 
pressing the artery with the fingers. C, The method of compressing the 
mouth of the divided artery in the wound. The dotted lines show the 
course of the artery. 


221. How can the flow of blood be stopped ? What is shown by fig. 
44 ? By fig. 45 ? 








THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


65 


222. After making compression with the fingers, as de¬ 
scribed and illustrated, take a piece of cloth or handkerchief, 
twist it cornerwise, and tie a hard knot midway between the 
two ends. This knot should be placed over the artery be¬ 
tween the wound and the heart, and the ends carried around 
the limb and loosely tied. A stick, five or six inches long, should 
be placed under the handkerchief, which should be twisted, 
until the knot has made sufficient compression on the artery 
to allow the removal of the fingers without a return of bleeding. 
Continue the compression until a surgeon can be called. 


Fig. 46. Fig. 47. 



Fig. 46. A, B, The track of the large artery of the arm. C, The meth 
od of applying the knotted handkerchief to make compression on this artery. 

Fig. 47, The track of the large artery of the thigh. B, The method of 
applying the knotted handkerchief to compress this artery. 


Observation. When an artery of the arm is cut, elevating 
the wounded limb above the head, will tend to arrest the flow 


222. What is to be done after compressing the wound as before de¬ 
scribed 1 What is shown by figs. 46,47 1 






66 


THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


of blood. In a wound of a lower limb, raise the foot, so that 
it shall be higher than the hip, until the bleeding ceases. 

Illustration. On one occasion the distinguished Dr. Nathan 
Smith was called to a person who had divided one of the large 
arteries below the knee. After trying, in vain, to find the 
bleeding vessel, so as to secure it, he caused the foot to be 
elevated higher than the hip. At first the blood was forced 
from the wound about twelve inches; in a minute it was di¬ 
minished to three or four; and in a short time the bleeding 
ceased. This Dr. S. called his great ” operation; and it 
was truly great in simplicity and science. 

223. In “flesh wounds,” when no large blood-vessel is 
divided, wash the part with cold water, and when bleeding has 
ceased, draw the wound together, and retain it with narrow 
strips of adhesive plaster. Then apply a loose bandage, and 
avoid all “ healing salves,” ointments, and washes. 

224. The union of the divided parts is effected by the ac¬ 
tion of the divided blood-vessels, and not by salves and oint¬ 
ments. 

225. Such simple wounds do not generally require a 
second dressing, and should not be opened till the wound is 
healed. 


223. How should “ flesh wounds ” be dressed ? What should he avoid¬ 
ed ? 224. How is the union of divided parts effected ? 225. Is it neces¬ 

sary to remove the dressings from simple wounds every day ? 



CHAPTER VIII. 


THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 

226. The respiratory organs are the Lungs , Tra'che-a , and 
its branches. 

227. The ribs, diaphragm, and several small muscles, aid 
in respiration , or breathing. 

228. The Lungs (lights) are situated on each side of 
the chest, having the heart between them. (See fig. 29.) 

229. The Diaphragm (midriff) forms the floor of the 
chest, upon which the lungs rest. It separates the lungs and 
heart from the stomach and liver. (See fig. 29.) 

230. The Trachea (windpipe) is situated in the front 
part of the neck, and extends from the mouth to the lungs. 
Through it the air passes to and from the lungs. 

231. This canal, formed of cartilaginous rings, divides be¬ 
hind the upper part of the heart into two branches, called 
bron'chi. 

232. One branch passes to the right lung; the other 
branch passes to the left lung. 

233. The Air-cells are very small sacs or bladders at 
the end of the minute divisions of the bronchi. 


226. Name the respiratory organs. 227. What other organs aid in 
breathing ? 228. Where are the lungs situated ? 229. Describe the 

diaphragm. 230. Describe the trachea. Does the air that goes to 
the lungs return through the trachea? 231. Of what is it formed? 
Where does it divide into two branches ? What are these branches call¬ 
ed ? 232. Where do they pass ? 233. Describe the air-cells ? 





68 


THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


Illustration. The trachea may be compared to the trunk of 
a tree ; the bronchi to two large branches ; the subdivisions 
of the bronchi to the branchlets and twigs; the air-cells to 
the buds seen on the twigs in the spring. 


Fig. 48. 



Fig. 48, represents the trachea and its divisions in the right and left 
lung. 1, The trachea. 2, The branch that passes to the left lung. 3, The 
branch that passes to the right lung. 

234. The lungs are composed of air-cells and tubes, be¬ 
side many small blood-vessels. 

235. These tubes, cells, and blood-vessels, are surrounded 
by a membrane, called the pleu'ra. 


Give illustration. What does fig. 48 represent 1 234. Of what are the 
lungs composed ? 235. What surrounds these vessels ? 









THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


69 


236. In breathing, the ribs are raised in front by muscles 
that are placed between and on them. This increases the 
diameter of the chest, as the ribs are situated obliquely. (See 
fig. 55.) When they are elevated, the central part of the 
diaphragm, which bulges into the cavity of the chest, is 
depressed. 


Fig. 49. 



Fig. 49, represents the bronchial or air tubes and cells. 1, An air-tube 
2, 2,2, Air-cells. 3, An air-tube and cells laid open. 

237. In this way the cavity of the chest enlarges, and 
the air rushes through the mouth and nose, into the trachea 
and its branches, to fill the air-cells. This is called inspiration. 

238. The chest is diminished in size by the contraction of 
a set of muscles (fig. 22), and the air is forced from the lungs 

I through the trachea, mouth, or nose. This is called expiration. 

Experiment. Place the ear upon the chest of a person, and 
a murmuring sound, somewhat like the soft sighings of the 
wind through forest trees, will be heard. This sound is caus¬ 
ed by the air rushing in and out of the lungs, and is pecu¬ 
liarly distinct in the child. 


236. When we breathe, how are the ribs raised ? Why does the ele¬ 
vation of the ribs increase the size of the chest ? What effect has it on 
the diaphragm ? What is represented by fig. 49 ? 237. Describe how 

the air-cells are filled with air. What is this process called ? 238. How 

is the chest diminished in size * What is this process called ? Give an 
experiment. ^ 





70 


THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


239. The air-cells are most numerous in the middle and : 
lower part of the lung. When they are filled with air, the j 
lung is soft and spongy, and will float on water. This is the j 
probable"reason that they are improperly called “ lights.” 

240. The air which fills these cells, or atmospheric air, is j 
composed of two gases, ox'y-gen and ni'tro-gen. 

Example. The burning of coal, of oils, and of wood, is 
caused by the property that oxygen has to combine with these 
substances, enabling them to burn, and give out light and heat. 


Fig, 50. 



Fig. 50. 1, represents a bronchial tube divided into three branches. 
2, 2, 2, Air-cells. 3, A branch of the pulmonary artery that divides into, 
three branches, and spreads over the air-cells. 4, A pulmonary vein that 
returns the red blood to the heart. This is formed by the union of these 
smaller veins that come from the air-cells, 2, 2, 2. 

241. The dark color of the blood is owing to the presence 
of carbonic acid gas. This is formed in the blood-vessels by 
the union of carbon and oxygen. 

Example. Charcoal is carbon in an impure state. When 
coal is burning, the oxygen unites with it and forms carbonic 
acid gas. This gas, when taken into the lungs, produces 
death. Many persons have been killed by sleeping in rooms 
warmed by burning charcoal in an open pan, or portable fur¬ 
nace. 


239. Where are the air-cells the most numerous ? What is the ap¬ 
pearance of the lungs when filled with air ? 240. What two gases com¬ 

pose the air we breathe? Give an example. Explain fig. 50. 241. To 
what is the dark color of the blood owing ? Where and how is it form 
ed ? Give an example. 





THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


71 


242. Carbon is supplied to the blood through the food. It 
is carried out of the system, not only by the lungs, but by the 
skin and other organs. 

Experiment. Breathe into lime water, and in a few minutes 
it will become of a milk white color. This is owing to the car¬ 
bonic acid gas of the breath uniting with the lime, — forming 
the carbonate of lime. 


Fig. 51. 



Fig 51. * The right lung. ** The left lung. 1, 
branch to the right lung. 3, A branch to the left lung, 
ride 5, The right ventricle. 6, The pulmonary arterj 
the rio-ht lung. 8, The branch to the left lung. 9, The 
10, T^e right pulmonary vein. 11, The left auricle. 12 


The trachea. 2, A 
, 4, The right au- 
r. 7, The branch to 
left pulmonary vein. 
, The left ventricle. 


242. Where does the carbon of the blood come from ? How is it car¬ 
ried out of the sytem ? Give an experiment. Explain fig. 51. 








72 


THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


243. As the impure blood is passing in the minute vessels i 
over the air-cells, the oxygen passes through the thin coats of j 
the air-cells and blood-vessels, and unites with the blood. (See i 
Fig. 50.) At the same time the carbonic acid gas leaves the 
blood and passes through the coats of the blood-vessels and air- 1 
cells, and mixes with the air in the cells, and is thrown out j 
of the system every time we breathe. 

Experiment. Fill a bladder with dark blood drawn from I 
the ox or sheep. Tie the bladder closely and suspend it in 
the air. In a few hours, the blood next the membrane will 
have become of a bright red color. This is owing to the oxy¬ 
gen from the air passing through the bladder and uniting with 
the blood, while the carbonic acid gas has escaped through 
the membrane. 

244. Air that has been deprived of a portion of its oxy¬ 
gen, and also contains carbonic acid gas, is not suitable to be 
inhaled into the lungs. 

Observation . Air in which a lighted candle or lamp will 
not burn brightly, is unfit to be inhaled into the lungs. 

Experiment. Sink a glass jar that has a stop cock, or one 
with a glass stopper, into a pail of water, until the air is ex¬ 
pelled from the jar. Fill the lungs with air and retain it in 
the chest a short time, and then breathe into the jar, and 
instantly close the stop cock. Close the opening of the jar 
that is under the water with a piece of paper laid on a plate 
of sufficient size to cover the opening, invert the jar, and sink 
into it a lighted candle. The flame will be extinguished as 
quick as if put in water. 


243. How does the oxygen of the air mix with the blood % How does 
the carbonic acid gas mix with the air ? Give experiment. 244. Why 
is the air that has been deprived of a portion of its oxygen, or that which 
has been thrown from the lungs, unfit to be breathed again ? Give an 
observation. Illustrate this by an experiment. 






THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


73 


PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

245. The cavity of the chest is increased in size in two 
ways. 1st, By the contraction of the muscles that elevate 
the ribs. 2d, By the depression of the central convex por¬ 
tion of the diaphragm. 

246. When the dress restricts or prevents the movements 
of the ribs and diaphragm, the chest is not duly enlarged, and 
consequently the air-cells are not properly filled with air. 

247. When the air-cells are not properly filled, the im¬ 
pure blood is not suitably changed, and is carried again into 
the different organs of the body, causing disease. 

Fig. 52. Fig. 53. 



Fig. 52, Is a correct outline of the Venus de Medicis, the beau ideal of 
female symmetry. 

Fig. 53, Is an outline of a well corseted modern beauty. One has a waist 
as God formed it; the other as fashion has deformed it. 


245. How is the cavity of the chest increased in size % 246. What 

' effect has “ tight clothing ” upon the ribs and diaphragm ? 247. What 

is the effect when air-cells are not properly filled with air 1 What do 
figs. 52 and 53 represent ? 

6* 







74 


THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


248. Persons that have large, full chests, particularly at 
the lower part, are not so liable to diseases of the lungs, as 
those who have narrow contracted chests. 

249. A contracted chest, caused either by injudicious 
dressing, or by any other means, can be enlarged, although 
the person is thirty years of age, by permitting the muscles 
that elevate the ribs and diaphragm to perform their proper 
function. 

250. Scholars, and persons who sit much of the time, 
should frequently, during the day, breathe full and deep, so 
that the smallest air-cells may be fully filled with air. While 
exercising the lungs, the shoulders should be thrown back 
and the head held erect. 

251. Deformed, small waists are not made in a day, or 
a month, but by steady, and, it may be , moderate pressure, 
week after week. 


Fig. 54. 


Fig. 55. 



Fig. 54, Represents the skeleton of a deformed chest. 
Fig. 55, Represents the skeleton of a well-formed chest. 


248. What persons are most free from diseases of the lungs ? 249. Can a 
narrow, contracted chest be enlarged 7 250. What practice is recom¬ 
mended to scholars and sedentary persons 7 What position should be 
assumed 7 251. How are deformed waists made ? What does fig. 54 

represent 7 What is represented by fig. 55 7 





THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


75 


Observations. 1st, The Chinese, by bandaging the feet of 
female children, prevent their growth; so that the foot of a 
Chinese belle is not larger than the foot of an American girl 
of five years. 

2d, The American women bandage their chests , to prevent 
their growth ; so that the chest of an American belle is not 
larger than the chest of a Chinese girl of five years. Which 
country, in this respect, exhibits the greatest intelligence ? 

Observation. The chest can be deformed by making the 
linings of the waists of the dresses tight, as well as by corsets. 
Tight vests, upon the same principle, are also injurious. 

252. The air that is breathed from the lungs, is not only 
deficient in oxygen, and contains carbonic acid gas, but it 
also contains waste animal matter in a state of vapor. 

Observation. This vapor can be seen in a foggy day, or 
by breathing on glass or any polished surface. 

253. If the air be breathed over a number of times, it 
not only causes lamps to be extinguished, but destroys life. 
Hence, sleeping-rooms, sitting-rooms, and every room occu¬ 
pied by human beings should be well ventilated. 

Illustration 1st. The effects of breathing the same air 
again and again, is well illustrated by an incident that oc¬ 
curred in one of our halls of learning. A large audience 
had assembled in an ill-ventilated room, to listen to a lecture; 
soon the lamps burned so dimly that the speaker and audi¬ 
ence were nearly enveloped in darkness. On leaving the 
lecture room, the lamps were observed to rekindle, owing 
to the exchange of pure air, on opening the door, — which 
supplied to them oxygen. 

Illustration 2d. The “ Black Hole of Calcutta,” received 

Give observation 1st. Give observation 2d. Can the chest be de¬ 
formed by tight vests and linings of dresses, as well as by corsets 'i 252. 
What is said of the air that is breathed from the lungs ? Give the 
observation. 253. Why should sitting-rooms and those we sleep in, be 
well ventilated ? Give illustration 1st. Illustration 2d. 





76 


THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


its name from the fact, that one hundred and forty-six Eng¬ 
lishmen were shut up in a room eighteen feet square, with 
only two small windows. On opening this dungeon, ten hours 
after their imprisonment, only twenty-three were alive. The 
others had died from breathing impure air, that contained , 
animal matter from their own bodies. 

254. The sick room, particularly, should be so arranged, 
that the impure * air may escape, and pure air be constantly j 
coming into the room. 

255. Curtains around the bed, and the sheet over the face 
are injurious. The effect is the same as is produced by sleep¬ 
ing in a small room not ventilated. 

256. Children and adults not unfrequently get foreign 
bodies into the throat. These accidents require immediate 
attention. It is not necessary to ascertain which passage, 
the foreign body is in, for the immediate treatment ought in 
either case to be the same. 

Some person should place one hand on the front of the 
chest of the sufferer, and, with the other, give two or three 
smart blows upon the back, allowing a few seconds to inter¬ 
vene between them. 

This treatment will generally be successful, and cause the 
substance to be violently thrown from the throat. 

257. To recover persons apparently drowned, it is neces¬ 
sary to press the chest suddenly and forcibly, downward and 
backward, and instantly discontinue the pressure. Repeat 
this without intermission, until a pair of bellows can be pro¬ 
cured. When the bellows are obtained, introduce the nozzle 
well upon- the base of the tongue, and surround the mouth 
and nose with a towel or handkerchief, to close them. Let 

254. How should sick rooms be arranged ? 255. What effect have 
curtains around a bed ? 256. When foreign bodies, as buttons, beans, 
&c., get into the throat, what should be done immediately 1 257. How 
should persons apparently drowned be treated ? 






THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


77 


another person press upon the projecting part of the neck, 
called “ Adam’s Apple,” while air is introduced into the lungs 
through the bellows. 

Then press upon the chest, to force the air from the lungs, 
to imitate natural breathing. Continue the use of the bel¬ 
lows, and forcing the air out of the chest, for an hour at least, 
unless signs of natural breathing come on. 

Wrap the body in warm, dry blankets, and place it near 
the fire, to preserve the natural warmth, as well as to impart 
artificial heat. 

Every thing, however, is secondary to filling the lungs 
with air. Send for medical aid immediately. Avoid all 
friction until breathing is restored. 

258. In cases of apparent death from hanging or strang¬ 
ling, the knot should be untied or cut immediately; then use 
artificial respiration or breathing, as directed in apparent 
death from drowning. 

Observation . It is a vulgar impression, in many sections 
of the country, that the law will not allow the removal of 
the cord from the neck of a body found suspended, unless the 
coroner be present. It is, therefore, proper to say, that no 
such delay is necessary, and that no time should be lost in 
removing the body. 

259. When life is apparently suspended from breathing 
carbonic acid gas, the person should be carried into the open 
air. The head and shoulders should be slightly elevated, 
the face apd chest should be sponged or sprinkled with cold 
water, or cold vinegar and water. Apply friction to the 
skin, with a coarse cloth or flesh brush, and resort to artificial 
respiration. 

All these means should be resorted to promptly, and, if 
necessary, continued for several hours. 

258. How should apparent death from strangling be managed ? 259. 

How should a person be treated who has breathed carbonic acid gas ? 






CHAPTER IX. 


THE VOICE. 

260. The simple yet beautiful mechanism of the vocal 
instrument, producing every variety of sound, from a harsh, 
hoarse, unmelodious tone, to a soft, sweet, harmonious, flute¬ 
like sound, can never be imitated by art. 

261. It has been compared, by many physiologists, to a 
wind , reed , and stringed instrument. This inimitable instru¬ 
ment is the Lar'ynx. 

262. The Larynx (Adam’s Apple) i3 & kind of box, 
situated at the upper part of the Trachea , or wind pipe. 

263. It is composed of several pieces of cartilage, that 
not only connect with each other, but with the tongue, lower 
jaw, and trachea. 

264. There are stretched across the cavity formed by 
these cartilages, four folds of membrane, two on each side, 
called vocal cords. 

265. The space between these cords is called the glottis , 
or chink of the glottis. 

266. Behind the base of the tongue, is a piece of car¬ 
tilage, resembling a leaf of parsley, called the ep-i-glot'tis. 


260. What is said of the structure of the vocal instrument? 261. 
What instruments have physiologists compared it with ? What is the 
vocal instrument called ? 262. Describe the larynx. 263. Of what is 

it composed? 264. Describe the vocal cords. 265. What is the space 
between these cords called ? 266. Where is the epiglottis situated ? 




THE VOICE. 


79 


The duty of this sentinel is to keep the food and drink from 
passing into the air-passage. 



Fig. 56, represents a side view of the cartilages of the larynx. 1 The 
bone at the root of the tongue. 4, 6, Cartilages of the laiynx. l] The 
trachea. 

Fig. 57. A section of the larvnx. 1 , 1 , The upper vocal cords. 2,2, 
The Tower vocal cords. 

267. When air is forcibly driven from the lungs through 
the glottis, it causes a vibration, or trembling of the vocal 
cords. This produces sound; and it is varied by the tongue, 
the teeth, and the lips. 

268. The state of the muscles that connect the larynx 
with the chin and tongue, strikingly varies sound. 

269. The condition of the mind, as well as the health of 
the lungs, exerts a great influence over the organs of voice. 

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

270. Singing, and reading aloud, improve and strengthen 
the vocal organs, and should be practised by every youth. 


What is its use 1 ? What does fig. 56 represent. 1 ? Describe fig. 57. 
267. How is sound produced ? By what organs is it varied ? 268. Does 
the state of the muscles of the throat affect sound ? 269. Does the state 

of the mind, as well as the health, have an effect on sound ? 270. How 

may the vocal organs be strengthened ? • 







80 


THE VOICE. 


271. In reading and singing, whether standing or sitting, 
the head and trunk should be erect. 

Fig. 58. Fig- 59- 



Fig. 58, represents an improper position; but one not unfrequently seen 
in some o’f our common schools, and in some of our public speakers. 

Fig. 59, represents the proper position for reading, speaking, and sing¬ 
ing. 

272. When the body is erect, the muscles are more under 
the control of the person, the ribs and diaphragm move with 
more freedom, and sound is more sonorous and equal. 

273. Variation of tone, and articulation of words are 


271. What should be the position of the head and trunk when we 
read or sing 1 ? 272. Why should the body be erect 1 ? 273. What will 
render the articulation of words more distinct. 















THE VOICE. 


81 


rendered more or less distinct, in proportion as the jaws are 
separated, and the nose free from obstructions. 

274. The dress about the neck should be loose. A tight, 
high cravat, prevents the muscles moving freely, and finally 
enfeebles the voice. 

275. Pure air produces clearer and more melodious 
sounds than impure; hence, school-rooms, public halls, and 
churches should be well ventilated. 

276. When individuals have been addressing an audience 
in a warm room, or engaged in singing, they should avoid all 
impressions of a cold atmosphere. 


274. How should the dress be worn about the neck? Why? 275. 
What effect has pure air upon sound? 276. What precaution should 
lecturers and singers observe ? 


7 




CHAPTER X. 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 



277. The Brain , Spinal Cord , and Nerves compose this 
system. These are the most important parts of the body, 
for all its functions are under their control. 


Fig. 60. 



Fig. 60, represents a section of the bones of the skull and brain, a, a , 
The outer margin of gray matter, b, b, The white central part. The dots 
in the white portion show the situation of divided blood-vessels. 


277. What parts of the body compose the nervous system *? What is 
said of their importance ? What is shown by figf. 60 ? 









THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


83 


278. The Brain is a pulpy organ within the skull bones. 

279. The upper and front portion is called the Ger 1 e-brum. 

280. The lower portion, situated at the back part of the 
skull, is called the Cer-e-bel'lum. 

281. The cerebrum, or larger portion of the brain, is 
composed of a whitish substance, with an irregular border of 
gray matter around its edges. 

282. The brain is surrounded with three membranes. 

The outer membrane (Dura Mater) is thick and firm. 


Fig. 61. 



Fig. 61. a, a, Represents the scalp turned down. b, b, b, The cut edges 
' of the bones of the skull, c, The outer membrane of the brain suspended 
by a hook, d , The left side of the brain, showing its convolutions. 


278. Describe the brain. 279. What is the upper portion called? 
280. What 'is the lower portion called ? 281. Describe the structure of 

the cerebrum. 282. How many membranes surround the brain ? Give 
the structure of the outer membrane. What does fig. 61 represent? 




84 


TriE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


283. The middle membrane is thin, and looks somewhat | 
like a spider’s web. The inner membrane consists of a net- j 
work of blood-vessels; through these vessels blood is con- 
veyed to the brain. 

284. On removing the upper part of the skull bones and j 
membranes, the brain presents an undulating, folded appear- j 
ance. These ridges are called Convolutions. 

285. The Spinal Cord is composed of a whitish sub- ; 
stance, similar to that of the brain. 

286. It is covered with a sheath or membrane, and ex¬ 
tends from the brain through the whole length of the spinal 
column. 

287. The upper portion of the spinal cord within the 
skull bone, is called the Me-dul'la Ob-lon-ga'ta. 

288. The nerves are small white cords, that pass from 
the brain and spinal cord. They are distributed to every 
part of the human system. 

289. The nerves proceed from each side of the brain 
and spinal cord, at precisely opposite points; hence, they are 
said to pass off in pairs. 

290. Every nerve, however small, contains two distinct 
cords of nervous matter. One gives feeling to the part where 
it is distributed; the other is used in the motion of the part. 
Both filaments or cords of nervous matter, are enclosed in 
one sheath. 


283. What is said of the middle membrane ? Inner membrane ? 284. 
What is the appearance of the brain on removing the upper part of the 
skull bones and membranes 1 What are they called ? 285. Of what is 

the spinal cord composed ? 286. With what is it covered, and where is 

it situated ? 287. What is that portion of the spinal cord within the 
skull bones called ? 288. Describe the nerves. Where are they distrib¬ 
uted ? 289. Where do the nerves of the body proceed } 290. What does 
every nerve contain ? What is the use of these two tracts of nervous _ 
matter ? Are they enclosed in one sheath ? 







THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


85 



Fig. 63. 


Fig. 62. 

































86 


THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



Fig. 62. a, The cerebrum, b, The cerebellum, e , d, The spinal cord. 
The brain, spinal cord, and bones of the spinal column are represented as 
divided into two halves. 

Fig. 63, represents the spinal cord, surrounded by its sheath. A, The 
cerebrum. B, The cerebellum, c, c, The spinal core!, and commencement 
of twenty-nine pairs of nerves. 

291. These small cords carry to the brain the news of 
the actual condition of every organ, as rapid as Professor 
Morse’s Magnetic Telegraph conveys the news from one city 
to another. 

292. Twelve pairs of nerves pass from the brain, and are 
generally distributed to the parts about the face. 

Fig. 64. 


Fig. 64, represents a section of the brain, and commencement of the 
spinal cord. 1, The cerebrum. 2, The cerebellum. 3, 4, The spinal cord 
6, The nerve that, goes to the nose ( olfactory ), (see fig. 71). 7 The nerve 

that goes to the eve {optic), (see fig. 73). 9, 10, 12, Small nerves that <r 0 
to the muscles of the eye (see fig. 79). 11, The nerves that go to the teeth 

and tongue (see fig. 70). 13, A nerve that goes to the muscles of the face 
(see fig. 22). 14, The nerve that goes to the ear {auditoni) (see fie. 751 
15, 16,17, The nerves that go to the larynx and tongue. IS, 19, 20 nerves 
of the neck. ’ ’ 


291. What is the use of each nerve ? 292. How many pairs of nerves 
pass from the brain 1 










THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


87 


293. Thirty-one pairs of nerves pass from the spinal 
cord. 

294. The nerves of the neck, arms, and fingers pass 
from the upper portion of the spinal cord. 

295. The lower portion of the spinal cord supplies nerves 
to the lower extremities. 

296. Through the brain the mind acts or wills; hence, 
from the form of the skull bones, it is called, poetically, the 
“ dome of thought.” 

297. The condition of the brain is changed by the action 
of the mind. 

Illustration . If we think intensely of a subject, the face 
will become flushed, and dizziness or pain of the head will 
be induced. Change our thoughts to something of a more 
trifling character, and the peculiar sensation in the head will 
cease. 

298. The brain is not only the seat of the Will , but it 
perceives every sensation. 

Illustration. Prick the skin with a needle, and the small 
nerve that is wounded carries the news to the brain, and we 
feel a sensation called pain. 

299. If the brain be diseased, and cannot perform its 
functions, then pain is not felt, and the person thus diseased 
falls into a state resembling sleep. 

300. Contraction, or movement of the muscles, is caused 
by an influence sent from the brain through the nerves. If 
the nerves be cut or compressed, the motion and sensation in 
the part to which they are distributed are destroyed. 


293. How many pairs of nerves pass from the spinal cord ? 294. 

Where are the nerves from the upper portion of the spinal cord distrib¬ 
uted ? 295. Where are the nerves of the lower portion of the spinal 

cord distributed ? 296. Through what organ does the mind act ? 297. 

Does the state of the mind affect the brain ? Give an illustration. 298. 
What organ perceives sensation'? Give an illustration. 299. If the 
brain be diseased, what effect will it have on sensation % 300. What 
causes the fibres of the muscles to contract ? 




88 


THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 









THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


89 


Fig. 65. A back view of the brain and spinal cord. 1, The cerebrum. 
2, The cerebellum. 3, The spinal cord. 4, Nerves of the face. 5, 6, 7,8, 
9, Nerves of the arm. 10, Nerves that pass under the ribs. 11,12,13, 14, 
15,16, Nerves of the lower limbs. 

301. There is another system of nerves, which do not 
confer either sensibility or power of movement. They are 
called sympathetic nerves. 

302. These nerves have a union or sympathy with the 
different organs of the body. 

Illustration. When the brain is jarred by a blow, nausea 
and vomiting follow. Again, when food is taken that irri¬ 
tates the nerves of the stomach, it produces headache, from 
the sympathy of the brain with the stomach, through this 
system of nerves. 


PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

303. The brain, like the muscles, should be used, and then 
allowed to rest, or cease from vigorous thought. 

304. The number of hours that the brain should be vig¬ 
orously used, depends on its development, and the general 
health of the body. 

Illustration. The child of a large brain and an active mind, 
never should be stimulated, by praise or rewards, to pursue 
studies above the capacity of children generally. On the 
other hand, children of sluggish minds, particularly if they 
have good health, should be roused to study. 

305. The child that has a frail, feeble body, should not 
be chosen from his more healthy brothers, to spend the little 
strength of body and mind that he may possess, in our semi¬ 
naries and colleges, but should have out-of-door exercise, to 
increase the strength of his system. 


301. Name another system of nerves in the body. 303. What rule 
is given in regard to the brain"? 304. How long should the brain be 
actively used 1 Give illustration. 305. Should the child that is feeble 
be confined to the school-room ? What would be better for him 'i 




90 


THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


Observation. Let the Latin maxim, “ Mens sana in sano 
corpore,” (to have a sound mind , you must have a sound 
body ), be taught in every school-room. 

306. When the brain is properly called into action, by 
moderate study, it increases in size and strength. 

307. If the brain be not used, it becomes enfeebled, 
thereby diminishing the function of the organs of the body. 

308. Repetition of mental action is as important as repe¬ 
tition of muscular action. It is by this means that thoughts 
are durably impressed upon the brain. 

309. To keep the brain in health, it should be supplied 
with a due amount of pure blood. 

Illustration. 1st, If a person lose a considerable quan¬ 
tity of blood, dizziness and loss of consciousness follow. 2d, 
The exhaustion of teachers and scholars arises, in many 
instances, from breathing bad air, thus causing impure blood 
to be sent to the brain. 

310. In restoring a sick person to health, it is very impor¬ 
tant that the brain and nervous system be acted upon by 
pure blood; consequently, they should breath pure air at 
night, as well as by day. 

311. Sick-rooms should not only be well ventilated, but 
they should be kept quiet. No person should visit a sick¬ 
room unless they have some duty to perform for the sick 
person. 

This remark should be as strictly observed with the child 
as with the adult. 


What Latin maxim should be taught in every schoolroom'?] 306. 
What is the effect when the brain is properly called into action ? 307. 
What is the effect if the brain be not used ? 308. How are thoughts 
durably impressed upon the brain ? 309. Why should the brain be sup¬ 
plied with pure blood? Give illustration 1st. Illustration 2d. 310. 
Is it of great importance that the brain and nervous system of a sick 
person be acted upon by pure blood? 311. Should the sick-room be 
kept quiet ? 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


91 


312. In injuries of the brain, the person is generally in¬ 
sensible, the extremities are pale and cold, the pulse feeble, 
and the breathing is less full and deep. When these symp¬ 
toms exist, the patient should be placed in pure air. Friction, 
with dry warmth, should be applied to the extremities, to 
restore proper circulation in the blood-vessels. There should 
be no bleeding until the skin of the extremities becomes 
warm. 

” • 

312. What is the general state of the body when the brain is injured ? 
Give the treatment under such circumstances 'i 





CHAPTER XI. 


THE SKIN. 

313. The skin of the human body is composed of two 
layers of membrane; namely, the cu'ti-cle , and the cu'tis ve'ra , 
or true skin. 

314. The Cuticle, or external skin, is a fluid first thrown 
out by the blood vessels over the internal layer of the skin. 

315. While layers of this fluid are continually forming 
on the upper surface of the cutis vera, the external layers of 
the fluid become dry, and resemble small scales. 

Illustrations. The cuticle is that part of the skin which 
is raised by a blister. It is also frequently seen peeling 
from the face and hands in small pieces. 

316. The arrangement of the cuticle in different parts of 
the human body, is worthy of notice. Where feeling is most 
acute, the cuticle is delicate and thin. Where there is mo¬ 
tion, as, over the joints, it is lax and movable. Where it is 
in constant use, it becomes harder and thicker. 

Illustrations. The soles of the feet, and the palms of the 1 
hands, afford good examples of cuticle thickened by use. 

317. The cuticle has neither blood-vessels nor nerves;: 


313. How many layers of membrane has the skin'? What are they 
called 7 314. How is the cuticle first formed 7 315. What is the ap¬ 

pearance of the external layers 7 Give illustration. 316. Mention the 
arrangement of the cuticle in different parts of the body. 317. Has 
the cuticle blood-vessels or nerves 7 





THE SKIN. 


93 


consequently, a needle may be thrust under it, to some extent, 
and cause no pain, nor will any blood ooze from it. 

318. Its use is to protect the delicate vessels which are 
situated in the internal layer of the skin. 

319. The cuticle, when clean, looks like a thin shaving of 
soft, clear horn; but, when filled with dust and other foul 
matter, it becomes dark colored. 

320. In the inner and newly-formed layers of the cuti¬ 
cle, there exists a peculiar kind of paint. 


Fig. 66. 



Fig. 66. 1,1, The cuticle. 2, 2, The colored layer of the cuticle. 3, 3, 
The papillary layer. 4,4, The net-work of nerves. 5, 5, The true skin. 
6, 6, 6, Three nerves that divide to form the net-work (4, 4). 7, 7, 7, The 
furrows between the papillae. 8, 8, 8, Three papillae magnified fifty diam¬ 
eters. 

321. This colored layer in the Negro, is black; in the 
Indian, copper colored; in the European, it is very light, 
differing, however, in different persons. 

322. The Cutis Vera, or true skin, is so called because 


318. What is its use ? 319. What is the general appearance of the 
cuticle ? 320. What is found in the inner and newly-formed layers of 

the cuticle ? 321. What color is it in the Negro ? Indian ? European ? 
322. Why is the cutis vera so called ? 

8 









94 


THE SKIN. 


it is the most essential of the two layers of the skin. It 
contains several sets of vessels ; namely, Arteries , Veins and 
Absorbents . 

323. In this layer, beside these vessels, there are found 
oil glands, and perspiratory (sweat) glands, and nerves. 

324. The arteries and veins form a net-work upon the 
surface of the true skin ; hence, cut any part of this layer of 
skin, and it will bleed. By the arteries the skin is nourished. 

Observation. When this layer of skin is destoyed by cuts 
or burns, it is never formed again, and produces scars which 
do not disappear. 


Fig. 67. 



Fig. 67. A, A, Arterial branches. B, B, Capillary or hair-like vessels, 
in which the large branches terminate. C, The venous trunk, collecting 
the blood from the capillaries. 

325. The nerves, like the blood-vessels, are very numer¬ 
ous, for no piftt of the skin can be pricked or cut, without 
giving pain. 


"What does it contain ? 323. What vessels exist in this layer beside 
the last mentioned ? 324. What do the arteries and veins form upon 

the true skin ? By what vessel is the skin supplied with blood ? Give 
the observation. 325. Are the nerves numerous ? 



THE SKIN. 


95 


326. By .this sensibility, we are warned not to handle 
heated bodies, nor to expose the system, suddenly, to an icy 
atmosphere. 

327. The absorbents are those small vessels which open 
upon the inner layers of the cuticle. These vessels are 
called into action when ointments are rubbed on the skin; 

* and also in vaccination, to prevent the small-pox. 

Observation. When removing the skin from animals that 
have died of disease, and in handling poisonous matter, either 
vegetable or mineral, care should be taken that the cuticle 
of the hand be not broken. 


Fig. 68. 

12 .3 4 



Fig. 66. 1, 2, 3, Oil glands and tubes from different parts of the body. 
4, An oil gland and tube from the scalp. The glands (A) form a cluster 
around the tube of hair (C). These ducts open into the sheath of the hair 
(Bj. The figures, from 1 to 4, are magnified thirty-eight diameters. 

328. When there are wounds or “sores” on the hand, 
cover them with a piece of cloth. It is a good precaution, 
under such circumstances, to rub the hands with oiLor lard. 


326. What benefit arises from the sensibility of the nerves of the 
skin 1 ? 327. What is said of the absorbent vessels of the skin ? When 
are they called into action 1 ? Give the observation. What does fig. 
68 represent ? 328. How can we prevent poisonous matter from being 
carried into the system ? 











96 


THE SKIN. 


329. The skin, when in health, is moistened with an oily- 
fluid, which is separated from the blood by small glands. 
The ducts of these glands open upon the external layer of 
the skin. 

330. In a few situations, these small glands are worthy 
of particular attention, as in the eye-lids, where they possess 
great beauty of distribution and form, and open by minute 
pores along the lids; in the ear passages, where they pro¬ 
duce the “ wax ” of the ears; and in the scalp, where they 
resemble small clusters of grapes, supplying the hair with a 
pomatum of nature’s own preparing. 

331. When there is an unnatural accumulation of oil in 
the tubes, it produces the “ worm,” or “ grub.” The black¬ 
ened appearance at the end of the tube, is produced by dust, 
which is mixed with the oily matter in the duct. This can 
be prevented and removed by frequent bathing. 

332. The perspiratory glands separate from the blood the 
perspiration or sweat. These glands have spiral ducts that 
open obliquely upon the surface of the skin (13,14, fig. 69). 

333. There are more than two thousand of these glands, 
with ducts, in every square inch of skin, and more than five 
million of them in this natural covering of the body. 

334. In health these glands are in constant action, and 
the skin is moist. When this moisture cannot be seen, it is 
called insensible perspiration. When it can be seen in drops, 
it is called sensible perspiration. 

Experiment. Put the hand into a dry glass jar, and wind 
around the wrist and mouth of the jar a handkerchief. In a 


329. What is the use of the oil-glands of the skin ? 330. How do 
these glands appear in different parts of the body ? 331. What does an 
unnatural accumulation of this oily matter produce 1 332. What is the 
use of the perspiratory glands 1 Where do their ducts open 1 333. 
How many of the ducts upon every square inch of skin ? 334. When 
is perspiration called insensible ? What is sensible perspiration ? Give 
an experiment. 



THE SKIN. 


97 


few minutes, the jar will be covered with moisture from the 
hand. 

335. Perspiration is very necessary to health. During 
twenty-four hours, from twenty to thirty ounces of waste, 
useless matter passes out of the body by these ducts, or 
through the pores of the skin. 

Fig. 69. 



Fig. 69. 1, 1, The ridges of the skin cut perpendicularly. 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 
The furrows or wrinkles of the same. 3, The cuticle. 4, 4, The colored 
layer of the cuticle. 5, 5, The cutis vera. 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, The papilla?, 
each of which answers to the line on the external surface of the skin. 7,7, 
Small furrows between the papillae. 8, 8, 8,8, The deeper furrows between 
each couple of the papillae. 9, 9, Cells filled with fat. 10, 10,10, The 
adipose layer, with numerous fat vesicles. 11, 11, 11, Fibres of the adipose 
tissue. 12, Two hairs. 13, A perspiratory gland, with its spiral duct. 
14, Another perspiratory gland, with a duct less spiral. 15,15, Oil-glands, 
with ducts opening into the sheath of the hair (12). 


335. How many ounces of waste matter pass through the pores of the 
skin in twenty-four hours 'i Describe fig. 69. 


8* 







98 


THE SKIN. 


PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


336. If perspiration be checked by any means, the waste 
matter that should pass through the skin is carried to organs 
within the body, causing pain and sickness. 

337. Perspiration not only contains water, but salt, oil, 
rust of iron, and other materials. 

338. The watery portion is absorbed by the clothing, or 
evaporates. The salt, &c., if not removed by bathing, or by 
friction of the clothing, remains upon the skin, closing up the 
pores, like a kind of varnish. 

339. To keep the pores of the skin open, it is necessary 
to bathe the whole body frequently, as perspiration is not con¬ 
fined to the face and hands. 

340. Cold water, — or water at about 70° in summer, and 
80° in winter, — is more strengthening to the system, than 
water that is warmer. 

341. No person should bathe when the body is fatigued, 
either by mental or physical labor, or immediately after a 
meal. 

342. The best time for bathing, particularly for sick per¬ 
sons, is about two hours after breakfast. Persons in health 
may bathe in the morning or in the evening. 

343. The simplest, and perhaps the best method of bath¬ 
ing, is the sponge bath. In this, but a small portion of the 
surface of the skin is exposed to the air, and the brisk rub¬ 
bing that immediately follows the wet sponge, prevents a 
chill of the skin. 


336. What is the effect if perspiration be checked ? 337. What does 
perspiration contain ? 338. What becomes of the watery portion ? Of 
the salt, &c. ? 339. Why is it necessary to bathe ? 340. What temper¬ 
ature of water is best for the system ? 341. When should persons not 
bathe ? 342. When should persons bathe ? 343. What method is the 
simplest for bathing 1 Why is it preferred ? 



THE SKIN. 


09 


344. No colds would be contracted in bathing, if persons 
would wipe dry, and use friction with a coarse towel or flesh 
brush, until redness or warmth of the skin is produced. 

345. Perspiration may be checked, by diminishing the 
circulation of blood in the skin. This may be done by wear¬ 
ing clothing which is too tight, or by want of clothing. 

346. Any article of dress is warmer upon the body, when 
there is a layer of air between it and the skin. 

Example. A loose mitten is warmer than a tight glove; 
and a large boot, than one that fits snugly. 

347. That kind of cloth is best, to prevent the skin being 
chilled, w r hich contains air between its meshes. For this 
reason, woolen is better than silk ; cotton than linen. 

348. When a person has been exercising, and the skin is 
wet with perspiration, an extra garment, as a shawl or over¬ 
coat, should be put on, when riding, or sitting to rest. 

349. Again, when a person has been actively exercising, 
a shade or current of air should be avoided, when sitting to 
rest. It is better to keep up the action of the skin, while 
under the rays of a summer’s sun. 

350. In the evening, when the system has been exhaust¬ 
ed by labor, more clothing is needed to prevent a chill, than 
in the morning, when the body has been refreshed by sleep. 

351. Change of clothing from thick to thin should be 
made in the morning, and not in the evening, as is the cus¬ 
tom with many who dress for evening entertainments. 


344. How are colds prevented when bathing? 345. Does the circu¬ 
lation of the blood have an influence on perspiration ? 346. Is cloth¬ 
ing warmer when there is a layer of air between it and the body ? 
Give an example.. 347. Why is woolen cloth warmer than silk? 348. 
When we sit or ride immediately after violent exercise, do we need 
more clothing ? 349. Should we sit in a current of air when perspiring 

freely ? 350. What part of the day do we need the most clothing ? 
351. What is the best time for changing thick clothing for thin ? 




100 


THE SKIN. 


352. A frequent change of apparel is necessary, as the 
fibres of the cloth become covered with the waste matter 
contained in the perspiration. 

353. The clothing in which we sleep, as well as beds and 
bed-clothes, should be aired every day. If this be not done, 
the moist bedding will cause a chill, and the perspired matter 
may be carried into the system of the next occupant. Many 
diseases are thus contracted. 

354. In all diseases, when the skin is pale and dry, or 
covered with scales like bran, bathing the whole body, ap¬ 
plying friction and proper clothing, will be found beneficial. 

355. The amount of clothing that should be worn, de¬ 
pends upon the employment, age and health of the person. 
No more should be worn than is sufficient to keep up an equal 
and healthy action of the skin. 

356. An excessive, as well as an insufficient amount 
of clothing, is alike injurious. The custom of wearing an 
undue amount on some parts of the body, and leaving ex¬ 
posed the arms and upper part of the chest, cannot be too 
highly censured. 

357. When any portion of the skin has been frozen, 
apply ice, snow, or cold water. The fire and a warm room 
should be avoided. If the frozen parts blister, treat them as 
you would burns. 

358. In scalds and burns, when the skin simply looks red 
and there is no blister, apply cold water constantly, to prevent 
a blister. 

353. If a blister be formed, and the external skin be not 


352. Why is it necessary to change clothing frequently ? 353. Should 
hed and bed-clothes that are used be aired every day ? 354. How can a 
pale, dry skin become healthy? 355. How much clothing should be 
worn ? 356. Is too much as well as too little clothing injurious ? 357. 
What should be applied when the skin is frozen ? 358. In scalds or 
burns when the skin simply looks red what is necessary ? 359. What 
is necessary if a blister he formed ? 



' 


THE SKIN. 


101 


broken, apply cold water, as long as the smarting pain con¬ 
tinues. After the pain has subsided, cover the blistered part 
with a patch of cotton or linen cloth, on which is spread lard 
and bees-wax. 

360. If the external skin be removed, apply lime-water 
mixed with “ sweet oil,” fresh cream, or lard and bees-wax. 

361. When the dressings are applied, they should not 
be removed until they become dry and hard. 


360. What is necessary if the external skin be removed? 361. How 
often should the dressings be removed ? 














CHAPTER XII. 

THE FIVE SENSES. 

362. The body not only has organs which promote its 
growth, but it has means by which the mind becomes ac¬ 
quainted with external objects. This communication is 
through the senses. 


SENSE OF TOUCH. 

363. This sense enables us to tell whether any thing is 
rough or smooth, cold or hot, sharp or blunt. 

364. It resides in the nerves of the skin. Under the 
cuticle are found projecting points, called papillae (fig. 66), 
to each of which a branch of a sensitive nerve is sent. 

Observation. When the skin is suddenly contracted, these 
points appear more prominent, and are called u goose flesh.” 

365. Where sensation is most acute, we find the greatest 
number of nerves, and those of the largest size, as, at the ends 
of the fingers and lips. 

366. Blind persons, by whom the beauties'of the external 
world cannot be seen, cultivate this sense to such a degree 
that they can distinguish objects with great accuracy. 

362. Through what means does the mind become acquainted with ex¬ 
ternal objects ? 363. Of what use is the sense of touch? 364. Where 
does this sense reside ? 365. Why is sensation more acute on the lips 
and ends of the fingers, than any other part of the body ? 366. What 

persons cultivate this sense to a great degree ? 




THE FIVE SENSES. 


103 


SENSE OF TASTE. 

367. It is by this sense that we discern the flavor of any¬ 
thing. 

368. The tongue is the principal agent of taste, though 
the mouth and upper part of the throat share in this function. 
This sensation is carried to the brain by the gus-ta-to'ry 
nerve. Many branches of this nerve are distributed to the 
points upon the surface of the tongue. 


Fig. 70. 



Fig. 70. The distribution of the gustatory nerve. 1, The orbit for the 
eye. 2, The upper jaw. 3, The lower jaw. 5, The fifth pair of nerves. 
6, The first branch of this nerve, that goes to the eye. 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 
Divisions of this branch. 7, The second branch of the fifth pair of nerves, 
that goes to the teeth of the upper jaw. 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, Divisions of 
this branch. 8, The third branch of the fifth pair, that goes to the tongue 
and teeth of the lower jaw. 23, The division of this branch that goes to 
the tongue. This is the nerve of taste. 24, The division that goes to the 
teeth of the lower jaw. 


367. By what sense do we know the flavor of anything ? 368. Is the 
• tongue the principal agent of taste ? How is this sensation carried to the 
brain 1 Describe fig. 70. 





104 


THE FIVE SENSES. 


Observation. By applying strong acids, as vinegar, to the 
tongue, with a hair pencil, these points will become curiously 
lengthened. 

369. This sense enables us to select proper food. 

370. Substances, to be tasted, must be either naturally 
fluid, or dissolved by the saliva. 

371. The flavor of moist substances is immediately perceiv¬ 
ed when they come in contact with the end of the tongue. But, 
if dry and hard, they must be acted upon by the saliva, and 
then the sensation will be felt at the back part of the mouth. 

372. Many persons impair their taste by bad habits, 
as chewing and smoking tobacco, and using stimulating 
drinks, &c. These indulgences destroy or lessen the sensi¬ 
bility of the nerve, and destroy the natural relish for food. 


SENSE OF SMELL. 
Fig. 71. 



Fig. 71. A side view of the passages of the nostrils, and the distribution 
of the olfactory nerve. 4, The olfactory nerve. 5, The fine and curious 
divisions of this nerve on the membrane of the nose. 


Give observation. 369. What is the use of this sense ? 370. In what 
states must substances be, in order to be tasted ? 371. What part of the 
tongue first perceives the taste of moist substances ? If dry and solid, 
what is necessary? 372. How is taste impaired? WTiat does fi®-. 71 
represent ? 




THE FIVE SENSES. 


105 


373. This sense enables us to discern the odor or scent 
of any thing. When the air rushes through the nostrils, the 
odoriferous particles of matter come in contact with the fine 
nerves, that are spread upon the membrane that lines the 
nose or nostrils, and the impression is carried to the brain 
by the olfactory nerve. 

374. This sense, with that of taste, aids man as well as 
the inferior animals, in selecting proper food, and it also gives 
us pleasure by the inhalation of agreeable odors. When 
much used it becomes very acute. 

375. The North American Indians can easily distinguish 
different tribes, and different persons of the same tribe, by 
the odor of their bodies. 

376. This sense is seen to be remarkably acute in the 
dog; he will trace his master’s footsteps through thickly 
crowded streets, and distinguish them from thousands of oth¬ 
ers ; he will track the hare over the ground for miles, guided 
only by the odor that it leaves in its flight. 

377. Acuteness of smell requires that the brain and nerve 
of smell be healthy, and that the membrane that lines the 
nose be thin and moist. 

378. Any influence that diminishes the sensibility of the 
nerves, thickens the membrane, or renders it dry, impairs 
this sense. 

379. Snuff,\ when introduced into the nose, not only dimin¬ 
ishes the sensibility of the nerves, but thickens the lining 
membrane. This thickening of the membrane obstructs the 
passage of air through the nostrils, and obliges “ snuff-takers ” 
to open their mouths when they breathe. 

373. By what sense do we discern the odor of any thing ? How is 
the odor or smell of bodies perceived ? 374. What is the use of this 

sensei Does use render it more acute? 375. What is said of this 
sense among the North American Indians? 37G. In the dog? 377. 
What does acuteness of smell require? 378. What will impair this 
sense ? 379. What effect has snuff upon the nasal organ? 

9 





106 


THE FIVE SENSES. 


THE SENSE OF HEARING. 

380. Hearing is the sense that enables us to perceive 
sound, through the organ called the ear. 

381. The nerve that communicates sound to the brain, is 
called aa-di-to'ry . 

382. The ear is divided by anatomists into three parts: 
1st, the External ear ; 2d, the Middle ear, or Tym'pa-num ; 
3d, the Internal ear, or Lab'y-rinth. 

383. The external ear is composed of cartilage. It has 
many ridges and furrows, arising from the folds of the carti¬ 
lage that forms it. 

Fig. 72. 



380. Through what organ is sound perceived ? 381. What nerve 
communicates sound to the brain 1 382. Into how many parts is the 
ear divided 1 Name them. 383. Give the structure of the external ear. 
What is represented by fig. 72 ? 





THE FIVE SENSES. 


107 


384. The use of the external ear is to catch and convey 
sounds into the tube, which extends inward. 

Observation. Many animals have small muscles that move 
the ear, in order to catch sounds from every direction. The 
hare, rabbit, and horse, afford good examples. 

385. At the internal extremity of the tube, is a thin, semi¬ 
transparent membrane, that separates the external from the 
middle ear. It is called Mem'bva-na Tym'jpa-ni , or “drum 
of the ear.” 

386. This and the bitter wax found around the hairs in 
the tube, prevent insects from entering the head. 


Fig. 73. 



Fig. 73. A view of the labyrinth laid open. This figure is highly mag¬ 
nified. 1, 1, The coch'le-a , or snail shell. 2 and 3, Two channels, that 
wind two and a half turns around a central point (5). 7, The central por¬ 
tion of the labyrinth, called the vesHi-bule. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,16, 17, and 
18, The semicircular canals. The cochlea and semicircular canals open 
into the vestibule. 


384. What is the use of the external ear % Give the observation. 385. 
What is found at the internal extremity of the tube ? What is it called ? 
386. How are insects prevented from entering the head 1 Explain fig. 73. 





108 


THE FIVE SENSES. 


387. The middle ear is connected with the internal and most 
important cavity, by four small bones. These are so arrang¬ 
ed, as to form a chain* from the drum of the ear to the laby¬ 
rinth. 

388. From the middle ear, a tube opens into the back 
part of the throat (fig. 74). This tube admits air to this cavi¬ 
ty of the ear, as the opening in the side of a drum admits air 
into the interior of that instrument. 

Observation. If this tube be obstructed by disease of the 
throat, it impairs hearing, as the closing of the hole in the 
side of the drum diminishes the sound. 


Fig. 74. 



Fig. 74. A view of the auditory nerve. 1, The spinal cord. 2, 3, 4, 
The lower part of the brain. 7, The auditory nerve. 12, A branch to the 
semicircular canals. 13, A branch to the cochlea. 

389. The internal ear is very intricate, and the uses of 
its various parts are not well known. It is called the laby¬ 
rinth , from its many windings. 

390. This part of the ear is the only one that is absolutely 
important in hearing. Other parts, before described, may be 
removed, and yet the person may hear. 


387. How is the middle ear connected with the internal ear 1 388. How 
does the middle ear communicate with the throat ? What is represent¬ 
ed by fig. 74 1 389. Give the structure of the internal ear. 390. What 
part of the ear is absolutely necessary in hearing 1 May the parts of 
the external and middle ear be removed, and the person hear 1 



THE FIVE SENSES. 


109 


391. The nerve of hearing is spread upon the inner sur¬ 
face of the membrane that lines the intricate windings of the 
internal ear. 

392. The vibrations of the air, producing an influence 
called sound , are collected by the external ear, and conducted 
through the tube (1) to the drum of the ear. This causes a 
vibration of the drum of the ear (2). 


Fig. 75. 



393. This vibration passes along the chain of bones (3, 4, 
5). The bone (5) communicates with the internal ear (7). 


391. Where is the nerve of hearing spread 1 ? 392. Explain, by fig. 
75, how sound is conveyed to the middle ear. Explain fig. 75. 393. 
How is sound conveyed from the middle ear to the brain ? 

9 # 

























110 


THE FIVE SENSES. 


From the internal ear the impression is carried to the brain I 
by the nerve (13). See fig. 75. 

394. The common causes of impaired hearing are — a 
thickening of the drum of the ear, and an accumulation of wax , 
upon its exterior surface. 

395. This accumulated wax can be removed, by soften- j 
ing it with oil dropped into the ear, followed by injections of I 
warm soap-suds. 

396. It is injurious to put pins into the ear, as they fre¬ 
quently cause inflammation. 

397. When worms and insects find their way into the ear, 
they can usually be driven out, by dropping in warm olive 
oil. 


SENSE OF SEEING. 

398. The beautiful instrument by which we perceive the 
forms, colors, and dimensions of bodies that surround us, is 
the Eye. 

399. This instrument, so useful to us, is shaped like a 
globe, and is placed in a cavity in front of the skull. 

400. This hollow globe, or ball, is filled with certain sub- ! 

stances, called Humors . n | 

401. The sides of the globe are composed of three mem- , 
branes, or coats. 

402. The transparent part of the eye in front, which pro¬ 
jects more than the rest of the globe, is called the Corn'e-a. 
It is shaped like the crystal of a watch, and, in health, gives the 
eye its sparkling brilliancy. 

394. Give some causes of impaired hearing. 395. How can the accu¬ 
mulation of wax be removed ? 396. Is it injurious to put pins into the 

ear ? 397. How can insects be removed from the ear ? 398. By what 

organ do we perceive objects ? 399. What is its shape, and where is it 
placed? 400. With what is the globe of the eye filled? 401. What 
composes the sides of this globe ? 402. Where is the cornea of the eye ? , 
Give its structure. * 





THE FIVE SENSES. 


Ill 


403. The outermost coat, called Scle-rot'i-ca , is firm, and 
its color white; hence, it is frequently called the “ white of 
the eye.” 


Fig. 76. 



Fig. 76. A section of the globe of the eye. 1, The sclerotic coat. 2, 
The cornea. This connects with the sclerotic coat by a beveled edge. 3, 
The choroid coat. 6, 6, The iris. 7, The pupil. 8, The retina. 10, 11, 
Chambers of the eye that contain the aqueous humor. 12, The chrystal- 
ine lens. 13, The vitreous humor. 15, The optic nerve. 

404. From its toughness it forms the principal support to 
the eye. This membrane, with the cornea in front, encloses 
the eye. 

405. The next membrane is of a dark color upon its in¬ 
ner surface, and, on account of its many blood-vessels, is call¬ 
ed the Cho roid coat. 

406. The innermost coat is called the ReVi-na , from its 
resemblance to a net. It is the immediate seat of sight. 

407. A short distance behind the cornea is found the most 
delicate of all the muscles of the body; it is called the I'ris. 
This part gives the blue, gray, or black color to the eye. 


403. What is the outermost coat called ? Explain fig. 76. 404. What 
is the use of the sclerotica ? 405. Describe the next coat. 406. What 

is the innermost coat called ? 407. Where is the^ iris found ? What 

gives the eye its blue or black color ? 








112 


THE FIVE SENSES. 


408. In the centre of the iris, is an opening called the 
Pu'pil ,* which enlarges or contracts, according to the quan¬ 
tity of light that falls upon the eye. 

409. The space between the cornea and iris is filled with 
the A'que-ous or watery humor. 


Fig. 77. 



Fig. 77. A transverse section of the eye, seen from within. 1, The divid¬ 
ed edge of the three coats. 2, The pupil. 3, The iris. 4, The ciliary pro¬ 
cesses. 5, The scolloped border of the retina. 

410. Behind the aqueous humor and pupil, lies the Cry s'- 
ta-line Lens. Its form is different on the two sides. When 
boiled, it may be separated into layers, like those of an onion. 

Observation. The lens in the eye of a fish, is round, like a 
globe, and has the same appearance when boiled, as the lens 
of the human eye. 

411. The largest and innermost humor is called the ViV- 
re-ous. It occupies more than two thirds of the whole interi¬ 
or of the globe of the eye. 


* From pupa, Latin, a babe; because it reflects the diminished image of 
the person who looks upon it. 


408. What is situated in the centre of the iris ? 409. What fills the 
space between the cornea and iris? What does fig. 77 show? 410. 
Where is the crystaline lens situated ? Does the lens in the eye of a 
fish, resemble in structure that of the human eye? 411. What is the 
largest and innermost humor called ? 





TI1E FIVE SENSES. 


113 


412. On viewing the part of the eye near the pupil 
small lines of a lighter color will be seen passing to the outer 
part of the iris; these are called Cil'ia-ry processes . They 
are about sixty in number. 


Fig. 78. 



Fig. 78. The second pair of nerves. 1,1, The globe of the eye. The 
one on the left is perfect, but from that on the right the sclerotic coat lias been 
removed, to show the retina. 2, The crossing of the optic nerve. 3, 4, The 
brain. 5, 6, The commencement of the spinal cord. 7, 8,9,10, 11,12,13, 
The origin of the nerves. 

413. The optic nerve, which comes from the brain, passes 
through the back of the eye, and forms the netted membrane 
called the retina. 

414. The different coats give form to the eye, while the 
transparent cornea and humors change the direction of the 
rays of light; so that the rays that leave an object at which 
we look, form upon the retina a small but clear image of that 


412. Where are the ciliary processes ? What does fig. 78 show 1 413. 
Describe the optic nerve. 414. Give the use of the coats and humors 
of the eye. How is the image of objects seen ? 





114 


THE FIVE SENSES. 



object. The impression of the image upon the retina, is car¬ 
ried to the brain through the optic nerve. 

415. When the cornea and crystaline lens are too con¬ 
vex, an image of the object will be formed before the retina. 
This defect of the eye is called wear-sightedness. To give 
such persons longer vision, it is necessary to wear concave 
glasses. 

416. When the cornea and crystaline lens become flat¬ 
tened, as, in old age, the image is formed beyond the retina. 
This defect is remedied by wearing convex glasses. 

Fig. 79. 


Fig. 79. A view of the eye and its muscles, a , 5, c, d, e, Five of these 
muscles, f, T he optic nerve. The bone is seen above and below the eye. 

417. The eye is moved by six muscles, one extremity of 
which is attached to the bones of the orbit; the other extrem¬ 
ity to the globe of the eye. 


415. When the image is formed before the retina, what is the result * 
How is this defect remedied 1 416. What is the result when the ima^e 
is formed beyond the retina ? How is this defect remedied 1 417. How 
many muscles move the eye ? 









THE FIVE SENSES. 


115 


418. The cavities or orbits of the eye are lined with a 
thick cushion of fat, in order that the eye may move in all 
directions with perfect freedom and without friction. 

419. The eye is protected from external injury by the two 
movable curtains, called eye-lids . These are opened and 
closed by small muscles. 

420. They are formed of thin cartilage, placed under the 
skin that fits the globe of the eye. Attached to the eye-lids 
are the eye-lashes . When the eye is closed, they interlace, 
and thus prevent particles of matter from injuring this deli¬ 
cate organ. 

Fig. 80. 



0 


Fig. SO. a, The lachrymal gland, b , Ducts leading from the lachrymal 
gland to the upper eye-lid. c, c. Ducts at the inner angle of the eye-lids. 
These open into the nasal sac (a), e, The nasal duct, that opens into the 
nose. 

421. The eye-lids not only protect the eye, by closing it 
in front, from too brilliant rays of light, and from dust, but 
distribute equally over the globe of the eye the fluid which 
moistens it. * * 

418. What are the orbits of the eye lined with ? 419. How is the eye 
protected from injury? 420. How are they formed ? What are at¬ 
tached to the eye-lids ? 421. What is the use of the eye-lids ? Explain 

• fig. 80. 








116 


THE FIVE SENSES. 


422. This fluid flows from small glands above the eye, 
called Lach'ry-mal (tear) glands. Several minute ducts con¬ 
vey it to the eye. It is carried from the eye to the ducts, that 
open upon the edge of the eye-lid, near the nose. 

423. These two small ducts usually convey the fluid 
away as quickly as it is formed ; but when the eye is irritat¬ 
ed, or the mind affected by various emotions, it flows to the 
eye too rapidly to be conveyed to the nose, and it then flows 
down the cheek in the form of tears. 

424. In using the eye, it should be fixed on an object but 
a short time, before it is allowed - to rest. Nor should it be 
used in intense light but a few minutes, as a glare of light 
frequently produces blindness. 

425. Small particles or dust may become lodged in the 
eye, and produce much inconvenience, which is often increas¬ 
ed by harsh attempts to remove them. The person should 
be placed before a strong light, the lids held open with one 
hand, or by another person, and the particles brushed away 
with the corner of a fine cambric or silk handkerchief. 

426. Sometimes the substance is concealed under the 
upper eye-lid, and it may then be exposed by turning back 
the lid in the following manner: Take a knitting needle, or 
small slender piece of stick which is perfectly smooth, and 
place it over the upper lid, in contact with, and just under the 
edge of the orbit; then, holding it firmly, seize the lashes with 
the fingers of the disengaged hand, and gently turn the lid 
back over the stidk or needle. 

427. You can then examine the inner side of the lid, and 
remove any substance that may have been there concealed. 
Too many trials ought not to be made, if unsuccessful, as much 


422. Where are the tears formed ? 423. What is the effect when the 
eye is irritated ? 424. How should the eye be used? 425. How can 
dust and other small particles be removed from the eye ? 4*6 How 
removed from the upper eye-lid ? 








THE FIVE SENSES. 


117 


inflammation may be induced by so doing; but a surgeon, in 
such cases, ought to be consulted as soon as possible. 

428. Eye-stones ought never to be placed in the eye, as 
they often cause more pain and irritation than the evil which 
[ they are intended to remedy. 


428. Ought eye-stones to he used ? 






CHAPTER XIII. 

ABSORPTION. 

429. “ By Absorption is meant the removal of the soft 
or hard parts of the body, or of substances placed in contact 
with these parts.” 

Illustration. When emaciation takes place in consumption, 
or when the fluid in the limbs of a dropsical person has disap¬ 
peared, the fat and the fluid are said to have been absorbed. 

430. Absorption is of two kinds. 1st, The process by 
which food and drink are removed from the stomach and J 
intestines, and conveyed into the system, for its growth and 
nourishment. 

431. 2d, The action of the absorbent vessels and glands, \ 
and also the small veins, by which the waste material from 
the different organs is poured into the circulating torrent 
and carried out of the body. 

432. The absorbent vessels are very minute at their 
commencement; so much so, that they cannot be seen with¬ 
out the aid of a magnifying glass. These small ducts unite 
and form larger trunks, that open into the veins. 

433. They are found in every part of the body, except 
the brain. The knotted appearance of these vessels is owing 
to the arrangement of their internal coats, to form valves. 


429. What is meant by absorption ? Give an illustration. 430. How 
many kinds of absorption? Give the 1st. 431. Give the 2d. 432. 

What is said of the size of the absorbent, vessels ? 433. Where are 

they found ? What does fig. 81 represent? 









ABSORPTION 


1 ID 










Fig. 91. 
















120 


ABSORPTION. 


Fig. 81. A representation of the absorbent vessels and glands. 1, 2, 3, 
4 5 6, The absorbent vessels and glands of the lower limbs. 7, Lymphatic 
glands. 8, The commencement of the thoracic duct. 9, The absorbents ot 
the kidney. 10, Of the stomach. 11, Of the liver. 12, The lungs. 13. 
14, 15, The absorbents and glands of the arm. 16, 17, IS, Of the face and 
neck. 19, 20. Large veins. 21, The thoracic duct. 26, The absorbents 
of the heart. 

434. In certain parts of tlie body, as the neck, these ves¬ 
sels pass through small, soft bodies, called lym-phat'ic glands. 

Observation. Sometimes, when we are afflicted with a cold, 
these glands in the neck enlarge; they are usually called 
“kernels.” 

435. When little or no food is taken into the stomach, 
life is sustained by the absorbent vessels, which imbibe or 
suck up particles of fat and convey them into the veins. It is 
the removal of the fat, that causes the lean appearance of a 
person recovering from sickness. In consumption, not only 
the fat, but more solid parts of the body are removed by 
absorption. 

436. Bears and other animals that live in a half torpid 
state during the winter, derive their nourishment from the 
same source. 

437. The most important absorbing surfaces are the 
stomach, intestines, lungs, and skin. Through the lungs ab¬ 
sorption is not only very great, but extremely rapid. 

Illustration. In inhaling sulphuric ether, it is introduced 
into the vessels of the lungs in the form of vapor, and through 
them it is rapidly conveyed to the brain, and thus influences 
the nervous system. 

438. It is probable also that the poisonous vegetable or 
animal matter which produces fever and other diseases, is in 
this way introduced into the body. 


434. What are lymphatic glands “? Are these glands ever seen 1 435. 
How is life sustained when we cannot take food ? 436. What sustains 
those animals that live in a half torpid state during the winter ? 437. 

Name the most important absorbing surfaces % What is said of the 
absorbing power of the lungs ? Give an illustration. 438. How is it 
probable that diseases are contracted 1 







ABSORPTION. 


121 


439. This affords another reason, why the rooms of sick 
persons should be kept clean and well ventilated. As a 
general rule, no person should attend another that is sick 
more than twelve hours at a time. 


SECRETION. 

440. To secrete means to separate. The curious and 
mysterious operation of secretion is performed by the capil¬ 
lary vessels. 

441. The material that forms the bones, muscles, skin, 
&c., is deposited in the appropriate places by these minute 
vessels. This may be called nutritive secretion. 

442. The fluids that aid in the digestion of food, as the 
saliva, gastric juice, bile, pancreatic juice and synovia, are 
all the result of secretion. 

443. The fluids that carry the waste, useless matter from 
the system, as the perspiration and product of the kidneys, 
are examples of another result of secretion. 


Fig. 82. 



Fig. 82. A secretory follicle. An artery is seen, which supplies the ma¬ 
terial for its secretion. Follicles are also supplied with veins and organic 
nerves. 

444. Another kind of secretion is performed by small 
pouches, called FoVli-cles . The slimy fluid that they secrete, 


439. How long should a person attend another that is sick . 440. 

What is the meaning of secrete ? How is the operation of secretion 
performed? 441. Define nutritive secretion? 442. Name some fluids 
that are the result of secretion? 443. Is perspiration a product ot se¬ 
cretion ? What does fig. 82 represent ? 444. What small bodies secrete 
mucus ? 

10* 







122 


ABSORPTION. 


is thrown upon the surface of membranes, by minute open¬ 
ings. The mucus of the lips, wind-pipe, and bronchial tubes 
affords examples of this kind of secretion. 

445. The blood contains all the materials of secretion. 
The different appearances in the secretory fluids, as, the yel¬ 
low, ropy bile, the briny tear, and the tasteless saliva, are 
chiefly owing to the action of small bodies, called glands. 

446. Glands are formed of minute arteries, veins, and 
tubes, wound together. They vary in size from a mustard 
seed, to that of the liver, which weighs from two to four 
pounds. 

Fig. 63. 



Fig. 83. a, a , Secretory gland. b, Minute ducts that are spread 
through the glands. These unite to form the main duct, c. 

447. Every gland, however minute, has a small duct for 
collecting and carrying off the secreted fluid. 

448. The secretions are much influenced by mental emo¬ 
tions. If we smell savory food, there will be an increased 
flow of saliva in the mouth; if we hear the intelligence of 
the death of a cherished friend, how quickly the tear will 
course down the cheek ! 


445. From what are all the different secretions formed ? What causes 
the difference in the appearances of the secretions'? 446. Describe 
glands. 447. Do the smallest glands have ducts ? 448. Are the secre¬ 
tions influenced by mental emotions ? 






ABSORPTION. 


123 


449. Unless the secretions are regularly maintained, dis¬ 
ease will be the final result. Let the secretions from the 
skin be suppressed, and fever or some internal disease will 
be produced. If the bile be impeded, digestion will be im¬ 
paired. If other secretions be suppressed, it will cause a 
derangement in the functions of the various internal organs. 

ANIMAL HEAT. 

450. Various opinions exist among different physiologists, 
in regard to the manner in which the warmth of the system 
is maintained. Observation and experiment show, that heat 
is produced by an action among the particles of matter in 
the body. 

451. In breathing, carbon passes from the body, and oxy¬ 
gen is received. This change of matter is attended by a 
change of temperature. In nutrition, fluids are converted 
into solids; in absorption, solids are changed into fluids; in 
secretion, old particles of matter are removed from the blood, 
and new particles are formed; in digestion, food is changed 
into chyle. In all these processes heat is produced. 

452. All of these changes are effected in the capillary 
vessels, and all require a certain amount of pure blood and 
nervous fluid. It may be concluded, then, that respiration, 
circulation, and nervous influence, all cooperate in producing 
animal heat, or that they are conditions essential to this 
phenomenon. 


449. What is the effect if secretions he obstructed ? 450. Are the 
sources of animal heat well understood? What do observation and 
experiment show ? 451. Name the different processes of the system 

which produce animal heat. 452. Where are all of these changes 
effected ? What functions cooperate in the production of animal heat ? 





APPENDIX. 


REMOVAL OR DISEASE. 

Sickness is generally the penalty for doing wrong, physi¬ 
cally ; yet God has kindly provided for the relief of it. This 
provision consists in the power of the system to remove dis¬ 
eased actions. The energies of the constitution maybe aided 
in their work of restoration, in two ways. 1st, By removing 
all the causes that tend to produce disease, or to continue it. 
2d, By aiding and assisting the natural action of the system, 
in its efforts to remove disease. 

The causes of disease have been pointed out in the previ¬ 
ous chapters, to which the scholar is referred. The powers 
of the system may be assisted in their efforts to establish 
health, in the following manner: 

1st. Food. Ordinarily, in all acute diseases, the patient 
does not desire food ; and, if it be taken and digested, the dis¬ 
ease will be much increased, by the stimulation of the chyle, 
when converted into blood. If it be not digested, it will add 
to the prostration of the system, by the irritation of the mu¬ 
cous membrane of the digestive organs; so that in all instances j 
of acute disease, food should be withheld for some days, while 
the thirst is allayed by cold water, barley-water, apple-water, 
crust coffee, &c. 

When a patient is recovering from illness, the food should 
be given with regularity, and in quantities not so great as to 





REMOVAL OF DISEASE. 


125 


oppress the system, and not too frequently. In all instances 
where a physician has been called, the food should be under 
his special direction, particularly after medicine is withdrawn, 
and the patient is recovering; as there are many examples 
of recurrence of disease, produced by injudicious use of food. 

2d. Bathing. By the action of the oil and perspiratory 
glands Of the skin, a great amount of injurious waste matter 
is removed from the system. In disease, the action of these 
glands is much diminished. Their ducts also will become 
obstructed, if the residual products are suffered to remain 
upon the skin. This inaction and this obstruction very much 
increase the oppression of the diseased organs. Consequently, 
reestablishing the healthy action of the skin, by attention to 
bathing and friction, is a powerful means of restoring the 
system to such a condition as will expedite a return to health. 

3d. Pure Air. This is not only essential in preventing, 
but it is of the utmost importance in removing disease. This 
arises from the fact, that, when the system is stimulated by 
pure blood, its power to remove disease is greater, than when 
the blood is defective in quality, in the carbon not being 
removed from it, by a proper supply of pure air. Hence, the 
custom of keeping the room of a sick person close, and the 
air impure, for fear the patient “ will take cold,” is exceed- 
ingly pernicious. There is no question, but that disease, in 
many instances, becomes severe, dangerous, and even fatal, 
from the air of the patient’s room being kept confined and 
impure,—that would have been mild, and of short continuance, 
if the apartment of the person had been properly ventilated. 
Stoves, particularly the “ air-tight,” are among the greatest 
evils to which the sick in New England are subject. 

4th. Rest is absolutely necessary to a person suffering 
from disease. By this I mean not only a cessation of mus¬ 
cular labor , but of mental action. Consequently, when a per¬ 
son is indisposed, if only slightly, the brain should not be 





126 


REMOVAL OF DISEASE. 


kept toiling and excited, by the noise and conversation of 
neighbors and friends. Conversation upon the details of 
business operations, and exciting and important topics, should 
be excluded from the room of the sick. To these rooms there 
should be no privileged topic, or set of visitors. These re¬ 
marks apply as forcibly to the apartment of the sick child, as 
to that of an adult. The more dangerous, and apparently the 
nearer death, the sick person is, the more rigorous should be 
the observance of the rule, to exclude all unnecessary visitors. 
The custom of visiting and conversing with sick friends, in 
the intervals of customary toil, particularly on the Sabbath, is 
a great evil. The habit is a gross nuisance, and will not be 
practised by any person who cares more for the welfare of a 
sick friend, than for the gratification of a sympathetic curiosity. 

5th. Nurses, and sometimes “ watchers,” are necessary, 
to carry out the suggestions under the preceding heads. A 
nurse should be kind, attentive, firm, and cheerful, in pre¬ 
sence of the patient. She needs both a theoretical and prac¬ 
tical knowledge of the principles and practices upon which 
health and comfort depend. Without such knowledge, she 
will not act with uniform consistency, in discharging her du¬ 
ties to the sick. Woman is the natural nurse of the child, 
sister, brother, husband, father, and mother; hence, every 
girl should become familiar with the principles of practical 
physiology. It is an accomplishment indispensable to a com¬ 
plete female education, and more important than music and 
dancing. 

A temporary “ watcher ” should have qualifications of a 
character similar to those described as indispensable to the 
nurse. As persons taken from the field and shop usually are 
deficient in this respect, it would be much more humane and 
economical to employ and pay watchers, wdio are qualified by 
knowledge and training , to perform this duty in a faithful 
manner, while the kindness and sympathy of friends may be 


BEMOVAL OF DISEASE. 


127 


practically manifested by assisting to defray the expenses of 
these qualified and needful assistants. 

6th. Medicine is sometimes necessary, to assist the natu¬ 
ral powers of the system to remove disease ; but it is only an 
assistant, smd. always an evil; yet it may induce an action 
that is less dangerous than that of the disease for the relief 
of which it is given. While emetics are occasionally useful, 
in removing food and other articles from the stomach, that 
would cause disease if suffered to remain,— and cathartics are 
valuable, in some instances, to relieve the intestines of irritat¬ 
ing residuum, — yet the frequent administration of either will 
cause serious disease. The same remarks may be made rela¬ 
tive to the use of opium, to relieve pain, — and of stimulating 
bitters, to create appetite. 

Although medicine is useful in some instances, yet in a 
great proportion of the cases of disease, including fevers and 
inflammations of all kinds, attention to the laws of health will 
tend to relieve the system from disease, more certainly and 
speedily, and with less danger, than when medicines are ad¬ 
ministered. Thomas Jefferson, in writing to Dr. Wistar, of 
Philadelphia, said, “ I would have the physician learn the 
limit of his art.” I would say, have the matrons, and those 
who are continually advising “ herb teas, pills, powders, bit¬ 
ters,” and other “ cure-alls,” for any complaint labelled with 
some popular name, learn the limits of their duty, namely ? 
attention to the laws of health. Future generations will look 
upon the administration of medicine, as now pursued, with as 
much astonishment and regret, as we view the habitual use 
of intoxicating drinks. The rule of every family, and each 
individual, should be, to touch not, taste not, of medicine of 
any hind , except when directed by a well-educated and hon¬ 
est physician (sudden disease from accidents excepted). 


128 


MINERAL POISONS. 


POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 

Poisoning, either from accident or design, is of such fre¬ 
quency and danger, that it is of the greatest importance, that 
every person should know the proper mode of procedure in 
such cases, in order to render immediate assistance when 
within their power. 

Poisons are divided into two classes; mineral (which will 
include the acids) and vegetable. 

The first thing, usually, to be done, when it is ascertained 
that a poison has been swallowed, is to evacuate the stomach, 
unless vomiting takes place spontaneously. Emetics, of the 
sulphate of zinc (white vitriol), or ipecacuanha (ipecac), or 
the wine of antimony, should be given. 

When vomiting has commenced, it should be aided by 
large and frequent draughts of the following drinks: flax¬ 
seed tea, gum-water, slippery elm tea, barley water, sugar 
and water, or any thing of a mucilaginous or diluent char¬ 
acter. 

MINERAL POISONS. 

Ammonia. — The water of ammonia , if taken in an over¬ 
dose, and in an undiluted state, acts as a violent corrosive 
poison. 

The best and most effectual antidote is vinegar. It should 
be administered in water, without delay. It neutralizes the 
ammonia, and renders it inactive. Emetics should not be 
used in these cases. 

Antimony. — The wine of antimony , and tartar of emetic , 
if taken in over-doses, cause distressing vomiting. In addi¬ 
tion to the diluent mucilaginous drinks, give a tea-spoonful of 
the syrup of poppies, paregoric, or twenty drops of laudanum, 


MINERAL POISONS. 


129 


every twenty minutes, until five or six doses have been taken, 
or the vomiting ceases. 

The antidotes are nut-galls and oak baric , which may be 
administered in infusion. 

Arsenic. — When this has been taken, administer an 
emetic of ipecac, speedily, in mucilaginous teas, and use the 
stomach-pump as soon as possible. 

The antidote is the hydrated •peroxide of iron. It should 
be kept constantly on hand at the apothecaries’ shops. It 
may be given in any quantity, without injurious results. 

Copper. •— The most common cause of poisoning from 
this metal, is through the careless use of cooking utensils, 
made of it, on which the acetate of copper (verdigris) has 
been allowed to form. When this has been taken, immedi¬ 
ately induce vomiting, give mucilaginous drinks, or, what is 
still better, the white of eggs , diffused in water. 

The antidote is the carbonate of soda , which should be 
administered without delay. 

Lead. — The acetate (sugar) of lead is the preparation 
of this metal, which is liable to be taken accidentally, in 
poisonous doses. Induce immediate vomiting, by emetics 
and diluent drinks. 

The antidote is diluted sulphuric acid. When this acid is 
not to be obtained, either the sulphate of magnesia (epsom 
salts), or the sulphate of soda (glauber’s salts), will answer 
every purpose. 

Mercury. — The preparation of this mineral by which 
poisoning is commonly produced, is corrosive sublimate. The 
mode of treatment to be pursued, when thi3 poison has been 
swallowed, is as follows: The whites of a dozen eggs should 
11 


130 


MINERAL TOISONS. 


be beaten in two quarts of cold water, and a tumbler-full 
given every two minutes, to induce vomiting. When the 
whites of eggs are not to be obtained, soap and water should 
be mixed with wheat flour, and given in copious draughts, 
and the stomach-pump introduced as soon as possible. Emet¬ 
ics, or irritating substances, ought not to be given. 

Nitre. — Saltpetre. This, in over-doses, produces vio¬ 
lent poisonous symptoms. Vomiting should be immediately 
induced, by large doses of mucilaginous diluent drinks; but 
emetics, which irritate the stomach, ought not to be given. 

Zinc. — Poisoning is sometimes caused by the sulphate 
of zinc (white vitriol). When this takes place, vomiting 
should be induced, and aided by large draughts of mucilagi¬ 
nous and diluent drinks. Use the stomach-pump as soon as 
possible. 

The antidote is the carbonate or super-carbonate of soda. 

Nitric, (aqua fortis,) muriatic, (marine acid,) or sul¬ 
phuric, (oil of vitriol,) acids, may be taken by accident, 
and produce poisonous effects. 

The antidote is calcined magnesia , which should be freely 
administered, to neutralize the acid and induce vomiting. 
When magnesia cannot be obtained, the carbonate of soda or 
potash may be given. Chalk , powdered and given in solu¬ 
tion, or strong soap suds , will answer a good purpose, when 
the other articles are not at hand. It is of very great impor¬ 
tance that something be given speedily, to neutralize the acid. 
One of the substances above named should be taken freely, in 
diluent and mucilaginous drinks : as gum-water; milk ; flax¬ 
seed or slippery-elm tea. Emetics ought to be avoided. 


Oxalic actd. — This acid resembles the sulphate of 






VEGETABLE POISONS. 


131 


magnesia, (epsom salts,) which renders it liable to be taken, 
by mistake, in poisonous doses. Many accidents have oc¬ 
curred from this circumstance. They can easily be distin¬ 
guished by tasting a small quantity. The epsom salts , when 
applied to the tongue, have a very bitter taste, while the 
oxalic acid is intensely sour. 

The antidote is magnesia , between which and the acid a 
chemical action takes place, producing the oxalate of mag¬ 
nesia, which is inert. When magnesia is not at hand, chalk, 
lime , carbonate of soda , or carbonate of potash , (salaeratus,) 
will answer as a substitute. 

Give the antidote in some of the mucilaginous drinks be¬ 
fore named. No time ought to be lost, but the stomach- 
pump should be introduced as soon as a surgeon can be 
obtained. 

Ley. — The ley obtained by the leaching of ashes, may 
be taken by a child accidentally. The antidote is vinegar, 
or oil of any kind. The vinegar neutralizes the alkali, by 
uniting with it, forming the acetate of potash. The oil unites 
with the alkali, and forms soap, which is less caustic than the 
ley. Give, at the same time, large draughts of mucilaginous 
drinks, as flax-seed tea, &c. 

4 

VEGETABLE POISONS. 

The vegetable poisons are quite as numerous, and many 
of them equally as violent, as any in the mineral kingdom. 
We shall describe the most common, and which, therefore, 
are most liable to be taken. 

Opium. — This is the article most frequently resorted to 
by those wishing to commit suicide, and, being used as a 
common medicine, is easily.obtained. From this cause, also, 


132 


VEGETABLE POISONS. 


mistakes are very liable to be made, and accidents to occur 
with it. Two of its preparations, laudanum and 'paregoric , are 
frequently mistaken for each other; the former being given 
when the latter is intended. 

Morphia. , in solution, or morphine , as it is more commonly 
called by the public, is a preparation of the drug under con¬ 
sideration, with which many cases of poisoning are produced. 
It is the active narcotic principle of the opium; and one grain 
is equal to six of this drug in its usual form. 

When an over-dose of opium, or any of its preparations, 
has been swallowed, the stomach should be evacuated as 
speedily as possible. To effect this, as much tartar emetic 
as can be held on a ten-cent piece, or as much ipecacuanha 
as can be held on a twenty-five cent piece, should be dissolved 
in a tumbler of warm water, and one-half given at once, and 
the remainder in twenty-minutes, if the first has not, in the 
meantime, operated. In the interval, copious draughts of 
warm water, or warm sugar and water, should be drank. 
The use of the stomach-pump, in these cases, is of the great¬ 
est importance, and should be resorted to without delay. 
After most of the poison has been evacuated from the stom¬ 
ach, a strong infusion of coffee ought to be given; or some 
one of the vegetable acids, such as vinegar or lemon-juice , 
should be administered. 

The patient should be kept in motion, and salutary effects 
will often be produced by dashing a bucket of cold water on 
the head. Artificial respiration ought to be established, and 
kept up for some time. If the extremities are cold, apply 
warmth and friction to them. After the poison has been 
evacuated from the stomach, stimulants, as warm wine and 
water, or warm brandy and water, ought to be given, to keep 
up and sustain vital action. 

Strammonium. — Thorn-apple . This is one of the most 


VEGETABLE POISONS. 


133 


active narcotic poisons, and, when taken in over-doses, has in 
numerous instances caused death. 

The Treatment — Similar to that recommended in poison¬ 
ing from opium. 

Hyosciamus. — Henbane. This article, which is used as 
a medicine, if taken in improper doses, acts as a violent irri¬ 
tating and narcotic poison. 

Treatment — Similar to that of poisoning from over-doses 
of opium. 

Conium. — Hemlock. Hemlock, improperly called by 
many cicuta , when taken in an over-dose, acts as a narcotic 
poison. It was by this narcotic that the Athenians used to 
destroy the lives of individuals condemned to death by their 
laws. Socrates is said to have been put to death by this 
poison. When swallowed in over-doses, the treatment is 
similar to that of opium, strammonium,.and henbane, when 
over-doses are taken. 

Belladonna —Deadly Night-shade. Camphor. Aconite 
— Monkshood , Wolfsbane. Bryony — Bryonia. Digita¬ 
lis — Foxglove. Dulcamara — Bitter-sweet. Gamboge. 
Lobelia — Indian Tobacco. Sanguinakia — Blood-root. 
Oil of Savin. Spigelia — Pink-root. Strychnine — 
Nux-vomica. Tobacco. — All of these, when taken in over¬ 
doses, are poisons of greater or less activity. The treatment 
of poisoning, by the use of any of these articles, is similar to 
that pursued in over-doses of opium. (See Opium , page 
131.) 

In all cases of poisoning, call a physician as soon as pos¬ 
sible. 


11* 


. 











GLOSSARY. 


Ab-sorp’tion. From the Latin, ab¬ 
sorber e, to suck up. The use of 
the absorbent vessels is to take 
up substances from without or 
within the body. 

Ac-e-tab'u-lum. From the Latin, 
acetum, vinegar. The cavity in 
the hip-bone. So called from its 
resemblance to the ancient Greek 
vinegar vessel. 

A-nat'o-my. From the Greek, ana, 
through, and temnd, I cut. A de¬ 
scription of the structure of ani¬ 
mals. 

A-ort'a. From the Greek, aorte , to 
keep in air. The large vessel that 
carries blood from the heart. 

Ap-pa-ra'tus. From the Latin, ad, 
for, and parare , to prepare. A 
collection of organs. 

Ap-pend'ix. From the Latin, ad, 
to, and pendere, to hang. Some¬ 
thing added. 

A-rach'noid. From the Greek, 

k arakne, a spider’s web, and eidos , 
resemblance. A thin membrane 
that covers the brain. 

Ar'bor vi'tce. From the Latin, ar¬ 
bor, a tree, and vitae, of life. 

Ar'te-ry. From the Greek, arteria , 
formed from aer, air, and terein , to 
keep. The ancients believed that 
the arteries were filled with air, 
like the wind-pipe. 

At'mos-phere. From the Greek, at¬ 


mos, vapor, and spliaira , a sphere* 
The air which surrounds the 
earth. 

Aud'i-to-ry. Latin. Belonging to 
the sense of hearing. 

Au'ri-cle. From the Latin, auris, 
an ear. The two cavities of the 
heart derive the name from their 
resemblance to ears. 

Bi-cus’pids. From the Latin, bis, 
two, and cuspis , a point. The 
name of certain teeth. 

Bile. A yellow, bitter, nauseous 
fluid, secreted by the liver. 

Bron'clius , chi. From the Greek, 
brogchos, the throat. The two 
branches of the wind-pipe. 

Bron'chi-al. Relating to the bronchi. 

Ca'nine. From the Latin, canis, a 
dog. The name of certain teeth. 

Cap'il-la-ry. From the Latin, capil- 
lus, hair. The capillary vessels 
are the extremely minute ter¬ 
minations of the arteries, and 
commencing branches of the 
veins. 

Car'bon. Pure charcoal. 

Car-bon’ic. Relating to carbon. 

Car’di-a. From the Greek, kar- 
dia , the heart. The opening of 
the stomach where the oesopha¬ 
gus enters. 

Car'pus. From the Greek, karpos , 
the wrist. There are eight bones 
in the wrist. 






136 


GLOSSARY. 


CarHil-age. Gristle : a part of the 
animal body, softer than bone, 
but harder than ligament. 

Cer-e-bel'lum. The lower and small¬ 
er portion of the brain. 

Cer'e-brum. The upper and larger 
portion of the head. 

Chest. The part of the body be¬ 
tween the neck and the belly. 

Cho'roid. From the Greek, chorion, 
the skin, and eidos, resemblance. 

Chyle. From the Greek, chulos, nu¬ 
tritious juice. 

Chyme. From the Greek, chumos, a 
grayish juice. 

Cil'ia-ry. Latin. Kelating to the 
eye-lids. • 

Clav'i-cle. From the Latin, clavis, 
a key, The collar-bone. 

Coch'le-a. Latin. A snail-shell. A 
name given to one of the three 
cavities of the internal ear. 

Co'lon. Greek. The first portion 
of the large intestines. 

Con'cave. Hollow; as the inner 
surface of a spherical body. 

Con'vex. Bilging; as the external 
surface of a spherical body. 

Corn'e-a. From the Latin, cornu, a 
horn. One of the coats of the eye. 

Cu’ti-cle. The external layer of the 
skin. 

Cu'tis Ve'ra. The true skin. The 
internal layer of the skin. 

Di'a-phragm. From the Greek, dia- 
phragma, a partition. The mus¬ 
cle that separates the lungs and 
heart from the stomach, liver, and 
intestines. 

Di-ges'tion. The process of dissolv¬ 
ing food in the stomach, and pre¬ 
paring it for circulation and 
nourishment. 

Du-od'e-num. The first of the small 
intestines, being about twelve fin¬ 
gers’ breadth. 

Du'ra. Latin. Hard. A dense mem¬ 
brane which covers the brain. 

En-am'el. The smooth, hard sub¬ 
stance which covers the crowns of 
the teeth. 


Ep-i-glot'tis. From the Greek, epi, 
upon, and glottis, the glottis. A 
kind of cartilaginous valve at the 
upper part of the larynx, behind 
the base of the tongue. It closes 
at the moment of swallowing, to 
prevent food and drink from 
passing into the wind-pipe. 

Eus-ta 1 chi-an Tube. So called from 
its discoverer, Eustachius. A tube 
that connects the middle ear with 
the throat. 

Ex-ha'lent. From the Latin, exha- 
lare, to throw out. 

Ex-trem'i-ties. The limbs; the legs 
and arms. 

Fe'mur. Latin. The thigh-bone. 

Fi'bre. An organic filament, or 
thread, of a solid consistence, 
which enters into the composition 
of every animal and vegetable 
texture. 

Fib'u-la. Latin. A clasp. The 
outer and lesser bone of the 
leg. 

Fol'li-cle. From the Latin, follis, a 
bag. Very minute secreting cav¬ 
ities. 

Fore-arm. That part of the arm 
between the elbow and wrist. 

Function. From the Latin, fungor, 
I act, I perform. The action of 
organs; as the function or action 
of the eye is to see, the ear to 
hear. 

Gas'trie Juice. From the Greek, 

gaster , the stomach. The fluid se¬ 
creted by the stomach. 

Gel'a-tin K From the Latin, gelu, 
jelly. 

Glot'tis. A small, oblong opening 
at the upper part of the larynx. 

Hu’mer-us. The bone of the arm, 
situated between the shoulder- 
joint and elbow. 

Hu'mor. Every fluid substance of 
an organized body; as the chyle, 
the blood. 

In-ci'sor. From the Latin, incido, I 
cut. The fore-teeth. 

I'ris. Latin. The rainbow. The 



GLOSSARY. 


137 


colored membrane round the pu¬ 
pil of the eye. 

Lab'y-rinth. From the Greek, lahu- 
rinthos, a place full of turnings. 
A name given to the windings of 
the internal ear. 

Lach'ry-mal. From the Latin, lac- 
ryma, a tear. 

Lac'te-al. From the Latin, lac, milk. 
The vessels that convey the chyle, 
or a milk-like substance, into the 
veins. 

Lar'ynx. From the Greek, larugx, 
a whistle. The upper part of the 
wind-pipe. 

Lig'a-ment. From ligo, I bind. A 
strong, fibrous substance, which 
binds bones, &c. together. 

Lobe. A round, projecting part of 
an organ. 

Mas'ti-cate. To chew. 

Me-duVla Spi-na'lis. From the Lat¬ 
in, medulla, marrow, and spinalis, 
relating to the spine. The spi¬ 
nal cord. 

Me-dul'la Ob-lon-ga'ta . The spinal 
cord that is situated within the 
skull bones. 

Mem'brane. From the Latin, mem- 
brana , a film, a delicate web. A 
name given to different thin or¬ 
gans. 

Mes'en-ter-y. From the Greek, me- 
sos, in the middle, and enteron, an 
intestine. A membrane in the 
middle of the intestines, by which 
they are attached to the spinal 
column. 

Met-a-carp'us. From the Greek, 
meta, after, and Jcarpos, the wrist. 
That part of the hand between 
the wrist and fingers. 

Met-a-tar'sus. From the Greek, 
meta, after, and tarsos, the instep. 
That part of the foot between the 
instep and toes. 

Mid’riff. The diaphragm. 

Mo'lar. From the Latin, molo, I 
grind. The name of certain teeth. 

Mu'cus. A viscid fluid secreted by 


the mucous membrane, which it 
serves to moisten and also to 
defend. 

Mus'de. A bundle of fibres enclos¬ 
ed in a sheath. 

Mus'cu-lar. Relating to muscles. 

Nerve. An organ of sensation and 
motion in animals. 

Ni'tro-gen. From the Greek, nitron, 
nitre, and gennad , I beget. One 
of the gases that compose atmos¬ 
pheric air. 

Nu-tri'tion. The act or process of 
promoting the growth, or repair¬ 
ing the waste of the system. 

(E-soph 1 a-gus. From the Greek, oio, 
I carry, and phagd, I eat. The 
tube that leads from the mouth 
to the stomach. 

Ol-fact'o-ry. From the Latin, olfac¬ 
tus, the smell. 

O-ment'um. From the Latin, omen , 
to guess. The caul, so called be¬ 
cause the ancient priests prophe¬ 
sied from an inspection of this 
part of the body. 

Or'gan. From the Greek organon, 
an instrument. A part of the 
system destined to exercise some 
particular function. 

Ox'y-gen. From the Greek, oxus , 
acid, and geinomai, I engender. 
A gas which constitutes about 
one-fifth of our atmosphere. 

Pan'cre-as. From the Greek pan, 
all, and Jcreas, flesh ; that is, quite 
fleshy. A gland situated behind 
the stomach. 

Pan-cre-at'ic. Relating to the pan¬ 
creas. 

Pa-pil'la. From the Latin, papilla, 
nipple. Small conical promi¬ 
nences seen on the tongue and 
skin. 

Pa-rot'id. From the Greek, para, 
about, and ous, the ear. A gland 
situated under the ear. 

Pa-tel'la. From the Latin, patina, 
a dish. The knee-pan 

Pel'vis. Latin. A basin. The 



138 


GLOSSARY. 


name of a bony structure at the 
lower part of the trunk. 

Per-spi-ra'tion. The evacuation of 
the fluids of the body through the 
pores of the skin. 

Pha-lan'ges. From the Greek, pha- 
lagx, a file of soldiers. The bones 
composing the fingers and toes. 

Pha'rynx. From the Greek, pha- 
rugx, the pharynx. The swallow. 

Phy-si-ol'o-gy. From the Greek, phu- 
sis , nature, and logos , a discourse. 
The science which treats of the 
functions of animals and vegeta¬ 
bles. 

Pleu'ra. Greek. The membrane 
that lines the chest and surrounds 
the lungs. 

Py-lo’rus. From the Greek, pule, a 
gate, and ouros , a guardian. The 
orifice of the stomach, that con¬ 
nects with the duodenum. 

Ra'di-us. Latin. A spoke. The 
small bone of the fore-arm. 

Rec'tum. The lower and straight 
portion of the intestines. 

Ret'i-na. From the Latin, rete, a 
net. The net-like expansion of 
the optic nerve on the inner sur¬ 
face of the eye. 

Re-sid’u-um. Residue. The waste 
remains of the food. 

Res-pi-ra'tion. The act of breath¬ 
ing. 

Sa'crum. A bone so called because 
it was offered in sacrifice. The 
lower portion of the spinal col¬ 
umn. 

Sa-li'va. Latin. The fluid secret¬ 
ed in the mouth. 

SaVi-va-ry. Belonging or relating 
to saliva. 

Scap'u-la. Latin. The shoulder- 
blade. 

Sde-rot'ic. From the Greek, skle- 
roo , I harden. A membrane of 
the eye. 

Se-cre'tion. From the Latin, secer- 
nere , to separate. The function 
of several glands, by which they 
separate from the blood the ma¬ 


terial which they respectively de¬ 
mand for their several purposes. 

Skel'e-ton. From the Greek, skello, 
I dry. The articulated dry bones 
of an animal. 

Spi'ncd Cord. A prolongation of 
the brain. 

Spine. From the Latin spina, a 
thorn. The back-bone. 

Spleen. The milt. It was suppos¬ 
ed by the ancients, to be the seat 
of melancholy, anger and vexa¬ 
tion. 

Su'ture. From the Latin, suo , I 
stitch. The seam or joint which 
unites the skull bones. 

Sy-no'vi-a. From the Greek, sun , 
with, and don, an egg. The lu¬ 
bricating fluid of the joints. 

Sys'tem. From the Greek, sun, to¬ 
gether, and istemi, I place. An 
assemblage of organs, composed 
of the same tissues, and intended 
for the same functions. 

Sys-tem'ic. Belonging to the gen¬ 
eral system. 

Tar'sus. From the Greek, tarsos , 
any row. The space between the 
bone of the leg and the metatar¬ 
sus. 

Ten’don. From the Greek, teino, I 
stretch. Strong white cords that 
connect the muscles to the bone 
which they move. 

Tho-rac'ic. From the Greek, tho¬ 
rax, the chest. 

Tib'i-a. Latin. A pipe or flute. 
The largest bone of the leg. 

Tra'che-a. From the Greek, tra- 
chus, rough, and arteria. The 
canal that conveys air to the 
lungs. 

Trunk. The body of animals, with¬ 
out the limbs. 

Tym'pa-num. Latin. The drum 
of the ear. 

Ul'na. Latin. A cubit. A bone 
of the fore-arm. 

Valve. From the Latin, valvae, a 
small door. Any membrane, or 
doubling of any membrane, which 




GLOSSARY. 


139 


prevents fluid from flowing back 
in the vessels and canals of the 
animal bodies. 

Veins. From the Latin, vena. The 
vessels that carry the blood to 
the heart. 

Ven'tri-cle. Latin. A small cavity 
of the animal body. 


Vert'e-bra, ce. From the Latin, ver- 
to, I turn. A joint of the spinal 
column. 

Vi'rus. Latin. Poison. 

Vi’tal. From the Latin, vita, life. 

Vit're-ous. Latin. Pertaining to 
glass. A name given to one of 
the humors of the eye. 




ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 


This work, of 342 pages, by Calvin Cutter, M.D., has 
passed through seven editions, of 3000 copies each, in less 
than two years. It embraces, 1. Anatomy, a description of 
the different parts of the human system, illustrated by more 
than two hundred superior engravings. 2, Physiology, a 
description of the uses of the several parts of the system. 

3, Hygiene, the laws of health and the prevention of disease. 

4, The management of accidental diseases, as, the recovery 
of persons apparently drowned, the treatment of wounds, 
burns, &c. &c. This work has been commended by the in¬ 
structors of most of the academies and select schools of New 
England and New York, among whom are the following: 

“ Middlebury College , Vt., June 1, 1847. 

Dr. Cutter, 

Dear Sir, — I take pleasure in stating that your element¬ 
ary work on Anatomy and Physiology is used in this College 
as a text-book, and it appears to be well adapted to such a 
course of instruction in these subjects as comes within the 
design of academies and colleges. 

Your Obedient Servant, 

C. B. Adams, 

Prof. Chem. &c. 

I have paid attention to the work of Dr. Cutter above 
alluded to, and can cheerfully express my concurrence in the 
opinion of Professor Adams. 

B. Labaree, 

Pres. Mid. College. 

The work is used in the following Seminaries, Academies, 
and High Schools of New York and New England. 

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2 


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Academy, Monmouth Academy, Maine Conference Seminary, 
Gardner Lyceum, Warren Academy, Kennebunk Academy, 
Thomaston Academy, Hampden Academy, Ilallowell High 
School, Augusta Academy, Waterville Liberal Institute, 
Skowliegan Academy, Norridgw r ock Ladies’ Seminary, Far¬ 
mington Academy, Norway Academy, Fryeburg Academy, 
Foxcroft Academy, Charleston Academy, Ellsworth High 
School, Blue-Hill Academy, &c. &c. This work is also ex¬ 
tensively used in the common schools of this State. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Nashua High School, Phillips Academy, Pinkerton Acad¬ 
emy, Adams Ladies’ Seminary, Rockingham Academy, Straf- 


5 


ford Academy, Dover Academy, Rochester Academy, Gil- 
manton Academy, Sandwich Academy, New Hampton Ladies* 
Seminary, New Hampshire Conference Seminary, Concord 
High School, Pembroke Academy, Pembroke Gymnasium, 
Francestown Academy, New Ipswich Academy, Melville 
Academy, Keene Academy, Mount Caesar Seminary, Ches¬ 
terfield Academy, Lebanon Academy, Hancock Literary and 
Scientific Institution, Kimball Union Academy, Haverhill 
Literary Institution, We are Academy, Manchester High 
School, &c. &c. It is also used in the common‘public schools 
in many towns in this State. 

RHODE ISLAND. 

Providence High School, Warren Ladies’ Seminary, R. I. 
Conference Seminary, Smithville Seminary, Pawtucket Acad¬ 
emy, &c. &c. It is also used in many of the public schools in 
this State. 


CONNECTICUT. 

Hartford Female Seminary, Winsted Academy, Farming- 
ton Academy, Baker Academy, Cheshire Academy, Litch¬ 
field Academy, New Milford Academy, Danbury Academy, 
Irving Seminary, New Preston Academy, Washington Acad¬ 
emy, Bridgeport Female Seminary, Fairfield Academy, South- 
port Academy, New Canaan Academy, Norwalk Seminary, 
Norwalk Academy, Stamford Academy, Warren Academy, 
Suffield Seminary, Middletown Academy, New London High 
School, New Haven Female Seminary, &c. &c. 

This work is likewise extensively used in Pennsylvania, 
New Jersey, Maryland, North Carolina, Ohio, and Kentucky. 


3 1 9 2 * ' 5 

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